Within Campaigns
When a Crowd Is Not a Crowd
Astroturfing makes organised persuasion look like ordinary public support, changing how rumours, protests and policy debates are judged.
On this page
- How astroturfing disguises coordination
- Signals that make fake support feel real
- How platforms and journalists can avoid rewarding it
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Introduction
Astroturfing is the practice of making an organised campaign look like a spontaneous grassroots movement. Instead of persuading people through openly sponsored advocacy, the organisers conceal their role and create the appearance that ordinary citizens have independently reached the same conclusion. In the context of myths and misconceptions, this matters because people often judge a claim not only by its evidence but also by how many other people seem to support it. Astroturfing exploits that shortcut by manufacturing the appearance of consensus. Researchers describe digital astroturfing as strategically directed, deceptive activity designed to mimic authentic public participation rather than genuine bottom-up mobilisation. [OSF]osf.ioOSFDigital astroturfing in politics: Definition, typology, and…by M Kovic · Cited by 195 — We propose to call such fake online grassro…
The result is a distortion of public perception. A rumour, policy proposal, protest movement or political narrative can appear far more popular than it really is. People may then treat that apparent popularity as evidence that the claim is credible, widely accepted or socially normal. [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsAttributing coordinated social media manipulationJul 29, 2025 — ' In CSMM, false beliefs are fostered about the identity and…
How astroturfing disguises coordination
The central mechanism of astroturfing is not necessarily the creation of false information. It is the concealment of coordination.
A genuine grassroots movement emerges when many people independently organise around a shared concern. An astroturf campaign reverses that process. A central actor—such as a political organisation, commercial interest, lobbying group or influence operation—creates the appearance of independent support while directing activity from above. Researchers describe this as a top-down campaign masquerading as bottom-up participation. [The India Forum]theindiaforum.inThe India ForumDigital Deceit: How Astroturfing Produces Democratic Deficits12 Aug 2025 — Digital astroturfing uses the phenomenon of soc… [OSF]osf.ioOSFDigital astroturfing in politics: Definition, typology, and…by M Kovic · Cited by 195 — We propose to call such fake online grassro…
Common methods include:
- Creating networks of accounts that appear unrelated but repeat the same messages.
- Operating multiple online identities, often called sockpuppets.
- Paying or incentivising people to post coordinated content without disclosing the arrangement.
- Establishing front groups that appear independent while being funded or directed elsewhere.
- Coordinating comments, petitions, letters or social-media activity so that a campaign appears larger than it really is. PsychoScales Database [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsAttributing coordinated social media manipulationJul 29, 2025 — ' In CSMM, false beliefs are fostered about the identity and…
Importantly, astroturfing often mixes authentic and inauthentic participation. Some supporters may be real people who genuinely agree with the message. The deception lies in hiding the campaign’s organisational structure and sponsorship while exaggerating the appearance of widespread public enthusiasm. [ResearchGate]researchgate.netResearch Gate Online astroturfing: A problem beyond disinformationResearchGateOnline astroturfing: A problem beyond disinformationJune 16, 2022 — 5 May 2026 — Astroturfing is the practice of creating a f…
Why apparent popularity changes minds
Humans rely heavily on social proof—the tendency to view an idea as more credible when many others appear to endorse it.
Astroturfing manufactures exactly those signals. A reader encountering hundreds of apparently independent comments, posts or endorsements may assume a broad consensus exists. Even when people do not fully accept the message, the perceived popularity can make them think the issue is more contested, more urgent or more widely accepted than it actually is. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectReview Clicks and tricks: The dark art of online persuasionby P Fagan · 2024 · Cited by 18 — On the one hand, astroturfing i…
Research on coordinated social-media manipulation notes that these campaigns create false beliefs not only about the content being shared but also about the popularity of that content and the identities of those promoting it. The deception therefore targets perceptions of public opinion itself. [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsAttributing coordinated social media manipulationJul 29, 2025 — ' In CSMM, false beliefs are fostered about the identity and…
Signals that make fake support feel real
Astroturf campaigns succeed when they reproduce the cues people normally associate with authentic public engagement.
Repetition from seemingly independent sources
People often treat agreement across multiple sources as evidence. Astroturf networks exploit this by ensuring the same talking points appear across many accounts, groups or websites. Even when individual messages are not identical, the cumulative effect creates an impression of spontaneous convergence. [PMC]pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPMCCoordination patterns reveal online political astroturfingPMCby D Schoch · 2022 · Cited by 94 — Online political astroturfing—hidden information campaigns in which a political actor mimics genuin…
Visible engagement metrics
Likes, shares, reposts, comments and follower counts function as social signals. Artificially inflating these numbers can make a position appear mainstream before genuine users have assessed it. Research on coordinated online campaigns has shown that users can be highly vulnerable to manipulation through amplified visibility and inauthentic account networks. [PMC]pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPMCCoordination patterns reveal online political astroturfingPMCby D Schoch · 2022 · Cited by 94 — Online political astroturfing—hidden information campaigns in which a political actor mimics genuin…
Local identity and community language
Astroturf campaigns frequently adopt local identities, community concerns or cultural references. Messages appear more trustworthy when they seem to come from neighbours, fellow citizens or members of a familiar group. The persuasive effect often comes from perceived authenticity rather than factual strength. [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsAttributing coordinated social media manipulationJul 29, 2025 — ' In CSMM, false beliefs are fostered about the identity and…
Artificial trends and popularity rankings
Some operations target the mechanisms platforms use to identify what is popular. Researchers studying “ephemeral astroturfing” found coordinated campaigns capable of pushing topics into trending systems through concentrated bursts of activity, after which much of the evidence could be deleted. The trend itself then becomes a persuasive signal because users interpret it as evidence of widespread interest. [arXiv]arxiv.orgarXiv Ephemeral Astroturfing Attacks: The Case of Fake Twitter TrendsarXivEphemeral Astroturfing Attacks: The Case of Fake Twitter TrendsOctober 17, 2019…
When a crowd is not a crowd
One of the most common misconceptions about public opinion is that visible participation automatically reflects genuine public sentiment.
Astroturfing demonstrates why this assumption can be unreliable. A large volume of posts does not necessarily indicate a large number of participants. A popular hashtag does not necessarily represent a broad movement. A coordinated campaign can make a relatively small group appear much larger than it is. [Nature]nature.comNatureCoordination patterns reveal online political astroturfing…by D Schoch · 2022 · Cited by 94 — After all, political astroturfing…
This does not mean every online campaign is fake. Most public advocacy remains genuine. The problem is that observers often lack visibility into who is coordinating activity, funding promotion or managing amplification. As a result, apparent consensus may be partly manufactured rather than organically formed. [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsAttributing coordinated social media manipulationJul 29, 2025 — ' In CSMM, false beliefs are fostered about the identity and…
The distinction matters because journalists, policymakers and ordinary citizens frequently use visible public reaction as a signal when deciding which issues deserve attention. If those signals are manipulated, public debate can become distorted even when individual messages contain no outright falsehoods. [The India Forum]theindiaforum.inThe India ForumDigital Deceit: How Astroturfing Produces Democratic Deficits12 Aug 2025 — Digital astroturfing uses the phenomenon of soc…
How platforms and journalists can avoid rewarding it
Astroturfing is difficult to eliminate completely because organisers continually adapt their methods. However, experience from research and platform investigations suggests several practices that reduce its effectiveness.
Focus on networks, not individual posts
Researchers increasingly argue that coordinated campaigns are best identified through patterns of behaviour rather than isolated content. Individual accounts may appear normal when viewed alone. Coordination often becomes visible only when analysing timing, connections and repeated activity across many accounts. [Nature]nature.comNatureCoordination patterns reveal online political astroturfing…by D Schoch · 2022 · Cited by 94 — After all, political astroturfing…
Verify claims of widespread support
Journalists and researchers can avoid treating social-media visibility as proof of public opinion. Questions such as who organised the campaign, who funds it, how participation was mobilised and whether engagement appears authentic are often as important as the content itself. [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsAttributing coordinated social media manipulationJul 29, 2025 — ' In CSMM, false beliefs are fostered about the identity and…
Look for transparency
Authentic advocacy can disclose its organisers, sponsors and goals. Astroturfing depends on obscuring those relationships. Front groups, undisclosed sponsorship and hidden coordination are warning signs because they prevent audiences from evaluating motivations and interests. [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsAttributing coordinated social media manipulationJul 29, 2025 — ' In CSMM, false beliefs are fostered about the identity and…
Reduce incentives for artificial amplification
Many digital systems reward visibility, engagement and trend formation. Researchers have proposed technical and governance approaches that make large-scale manipulation more expensive and easier to detect, reducing the ability of coordinated actors to dominate public attention through sheer volume. [arXiv]arxiv.orgarXiv Ephemeral Astroturfing Attacks: The Case of Fake Twitter TrendsarXivEphemeral Astroturfing Attacks: The Case of Fake Twitter TrendsOctober 17, 2019…
The key misconception
A common myth is that public consensus is always easy to recognise because large numbers of people will naturally reveal what most people think. Astroturfing shows that visible agreement and genuine agreement are not the same thing.
The power of fake grassroots campaigns comes from their ability to manufacture the social cues people use to judge credibility. By making coordinated persuasion appear spontaneous, local and widely supported, astroturfing can reshape how rumours, controversies and policy debates are interpreted. The crucial question is therefore not simply whether many people appear to support a claim, but whether that appearance of support emerged independently or was carefully engineered. [OSF]osf.ioOSFDigital astroturfing in politics: Definition, typology, and…by M Kovic · Cited by 195 — We propose to call such fake online grassro… [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsAttributing coordinated social media manipulationJul 29, 2025 — ' In CSMM, false beliefs are fostered about the identity and…
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Further Reading
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Trust Me I'm Lying
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Trust Me, I'm Lying
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Endnotes
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Source: osf.io
Link: https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/7ucshSource snippet
OSFDigital astroturfing in [politics]({{ 'politics/' | relative_url }}): Definition, typology, and...by M Kovic · Cited by 195 — We propose to call such fake online grassro...
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Source: researchgate.net
Title: Research Gate Online astroturfing: A problem beyond disinformation
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361389437_Online_astroturfing_A_problem_beyond_disinformationSource snippet
ResearchGateOnline astroturfing: A problem beyond disinformationJune 16, 2022 — 5 May 2026 — Astroturfing is the practice of creating a f...
Published: June 16, 2022
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Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X24000575Source snippet
ScienceDirectReview Clicks and tricks: The dark art of online persuasionby P Fagan · 2024 · Cited by 18 — On the one hand, astroturfing i...
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Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Title: PMCCoordination patterns reveal online political astroturfing
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8930979/Source snippet
PMCby D Schoch · 2022 · Cited by 94 — Online political astroturfing—hidden information campaigns in which a political actor mimics genuin...
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Source: nature.com
Link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-08404-9Source snippet
NatureCoordination patterns reveal online political astroturfing...by D Schoch · 2022 · Cited by 94 — After all, political astroturfing...
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Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11238850/Source snippet
PMCQuantifying the vulnerabilities of the online public square to...by BT Truong · 2024 · Cited by 17 — We show that social media users...
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Source: arxiv.org
Title: arXiv Ephemeral Astroturfing Attacks: The Case of Fake Twitter Trends
Link: https://arxiv.org/abs/1910.07783Source snippet
arXivEphemeral Astroturfing Attacks: The Case of Fake Twitter TrendsOctober 17, 2019...
Published: October 17, 2019
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Source: arxiv.org
Link: https://arxiv.org/abs/2503.00599 -
Source: arxiv.org
Title: arXiv Trollthrottle – Raising the Cost of Astroturfing
Link: https://arxiv.org/abs/2004.08836 -
Source: arxiv.org
Title: arXiv FLOCK: Combating Astroturfing on Livestreaming Platforms
Link: https://arxiv.org/abs/1610.01096 -
Source: researchgate.net
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355714693_Disinformation_social_media_bots_and_astroturfing_the_fourth_wave_of_digital_democracySource snippet
(PDF) Disinformation, social media, bots, and astroturfingThis paper explores the creation of an astroturf group, which is a fake grassro...
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Source: researchgate.net
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332867727_Digital_astroturfing_in_politics_Definition_typology_and_countermeasuresSource snippet
Digital astroturfing in politics: Definition, typology, and...23 Mar 2026 — In contemporary academic literature, digital astroturfing is...
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Demystifying Misconceptions in Social Bots Research27 Mar 2024 — The present study concerns one of the many forms of online disinformatio...
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Source: theindiaforum.in
Link: https://www.theindiaforum.in/law/digital-deceit-how-astroturfing-produces-democratic-deficitsSource snippet
The India ForumDigital Deceit: How Astroturfing Produces Democratic Deficits12 Aug 2025 — Digital astroturfing uses the phenomenon of soc...
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Source: journals.sagepub.com
Link: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2057047320969435Source snippet
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Source: journals.sagepub.com
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11 Mar 2022 — To create an impression of spontaneous, grassroots public support.... Fake Grassroots in the 1990s. One of the world's lea...
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AstroturfingAstroturfing is the use of fake grassroots efforts that primarily focus on influencing public opinion and typically are fu...
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Link: https://www.cdmrn.ca/learning-content/astroturfingSource snippet
3 Apr 2025 —... grassroots movements and public opinion.... If you suspect the campaign may be using bots, you can report the fake acco...
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Additional References
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Astroturfing in Politics: The Fake Grassroots Tactic ExposedAstroturfing is the practice of creating the illusion of grassroots support f...
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Source: reddit.com
Link: https://www.reddit.com/r/TheoryOfReddit/comments/rqmc5k/astroturfing_on_reddit/Source snippet
Astroturfing on Reddit: r/TheoryOfRedditAstroturfing is essentially “fake grassroots” movements. It is organized activity made to stimul...
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Source: orionpolicy.org
Link: https://orionpolicy.org/political-astroturfing-in-twitterscape-the-role-of-troll-armies-in-turkeys-democratic-backsliding/Source snippet
Political Astroturfing in Turkey: Troll Armies and DemocracyBuilding on the Stanford University's report, this study explores the politic...
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astroturfing in politics: Definition, typology, and...We propose to call such fake online grassroots activity digital astroturfing, and...
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Source: manchester.ac.uk
Title: how to rig an election twitters problem with political saboteurs
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How to rig an election: Twitter's problem with political...28 Oct 2019 — 'Astroturfing' comes from the way in which agents appear to be...
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Source: turnto23.com
Title: astroturfing and the rise of misinformation campaigns
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'Astroturfing' and the rise of misinformation campaigns27 Jan 2021 — Astroturfing is an effort to mobilize the mass public in a way that...
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Source: icono14.net
Title: Inside the Invisible Machinery of Astroturfing
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A serial...While detection methods have advanced - including network analysis, linguistic patterning, and bot detection - many campaigns...
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Source: springerprofessional.de
Link: https://www.springerprofessional.de/en/astroturfing-understanding-and-addressing-the-influence-of-fake-/51283520Source snippet
of fake support or opposition to a certain cause, product, or campaign...
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Source: Lawfare
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Challenges Posed by ChatGPT-Like AIJan 20, 2023 — Astroturfing circa 2016, however, was often either ineffective or expensive...
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