Why Saying False Is Not Enough

Introduction

A common assumption about myths and misconceptions is that once a false claim has been labelled false, the problem is solved. Research on misinformation shows that reality is more complicated. A rumour often survives not because people stubbornly believe it, but because it provides an explanation for an event. When a correction simply says “that did not happen” without explaining what did happen, it creates a causal gap: an unanswered question about cause and effect. In that situation, people may continue to rely on the original rumour when reasoning about the event, even while acknowledging that the rumour was retracted. This mechanism is one of the most studied features of the continued influence effect, a phenomenon in which corrected misinformation continues to shape judgement and memory. PMC [Nature]nature.comNatureThe psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its…by UKH Ecker · 2022 · Cited by 1916 — In this Review, we describe the…

How rumours become working explanations

Rumours do more than make factual claims. They often supply a complete account of why something happened. A claim about a fire, a disease outbreak, a political decision, or a public scandal typically links an event to a cause. Once that link becomes part of a person’s mental picture of events, it serves as a working explanation rather than a standalone fact.

Psychological research suggests that people build what are often called mental models or situation models: coherent representations that connect causes, actions, and outcomes. When misinformation becomes embedded in such a model, removing it is not as simple as deleting a sentence from memory. The false information may occupy a structural role within the explanation itself. [Ecker Memory & Cognition Lab]emc-lab.orgEcker Memory & Cognition LabMisinformation and its CorrectionMarch 6, 2018 — by B Swire · Cited by 139 — The notion that retractions crea…Published: March 6, 2018 [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirect He did it!She did it! No, she did not! Multiple causal…by UKH Ecker · 2015 · Cited by 164 — This implies that, while a retraction creates a “gap…

The classic illustration comes from studies involving reports of a warehouse fire. Participants were told that flammable materials had been stored near the source of the blaze. Later, they learned that this information was incorrect. Even after receiving the correction, many participants continued to refer to the supposedly stored materials when explaining the fire. The original claim had become the event’s causal explanation, and the retraction removed that explanation without supplying a replacement. [ANECDOTAL]anecdotal.appANECDOTALContinued influence effect | ANECDOTALWhen misinformation fills a causal role in a mental model — the warehouse fire started in… [Shaping Tomorrows World]shapingtomorrowsworld.orgSource details in endnotes.

This distinction matters because belief and explanation are not identical. A person can remember that a rumour was retracted and still find themselves using it when asked to explain events. The rumour remains cognitively useful because it fills an explanatory role that nothing else has replaced. [Frontiers]frontiersin.orgFrontiersThe inhibitory impact of collaboration on the continued…by G Chen · 2024 · Cited by 2 — The continued influence effect (CIE)… [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govimpact of misinformation corrections on source…by V Westbrook · 2023 · Cited by 26 — Research on the continued influence effect (CIE)…

Why retractions leave unfinished stories

A bare denial is a correction that simply negates a claim: “The report was false”, “The allegation is incorrect”, or “There is no evidence for that story.” Such statements may reduce belief in the rumour, but they often fail to repair the explanatory structure that the rumour created. [University of Bristol]research-information.bris.ac.ukUniversity of Bristol Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, UKH, & Cook, J2017). BeyondToday — Second, corrections must explain why the misinformation was disseminated in the first place or they must provide an…

Researchers have repeatedly found that corrections work better when they provide an alternative account of events. Instead of merely rejecting misinformation, effective corrections answer the reader’s next question: if that explanation is wrong, what explains the event instead? [University of Bristol]research-information.bris.ac.ukUniversity of Bristol Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, UKH, & Cook, J2017). BeyondToday — Second, corrections must explain why the misinformation was disseminated in the first place or they must provide an… SciSpace Consider two responses to a false claim: [scispace.com]scispace.comSuccessful correction of misinformation appears to require an alternative causal account. The alternative appears to replace the…Read…

• “The contamination was not caused by the factory.”
• “The contamination was traced to a damaged sewage pipe identified during the investigation.”

The first statement removes a cause. The second removes one cause and replaces it with another. The difference is not merely informational. It changes whether the listener is left with an unfinished story. Research consistently finds that alternative explanations reduce reliance on misinformation more effectively than simple retractions. [Shaping Tomorrows World]shapingtomorrowsworld.orgSource details in endnotes. SciSpace This helps explain why some myths persist despite extensive fact-checking. If the myth answers a question that remains unresolved [scispace.com]scispace.comSuccessful correction of misinformation appears to require an alternative causal account. The alternative appears to replace the…Read…, people may continue to draw on it because it offers coherence. Human reasoning generally prefers complete narratives over fragments of disconnected information. [Nature]nature.comNatureThe psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its…by UKH Ecker · 2022 · Cited by 1916 — In this Review, we describe the… [2brod.ntcenter.bg]brod.ntcenter.bgContinued Influence EffectThe "Continued Influence Effect" refers to the phenomenon where misinformation continues to affect people's thi…

What a causal gap looks like in practice

The causal gap becomes visible when people are asked not whether they believe a rumour, but how they interpret an event.

Imagine a news story reporting that a politician accepted an illegal payment. A correction later establishes that the payment never occurred. If the correction stops there, readers are left with an unresolved question: why did the politician behave as they did, or why did the accusation arise in the first place? The false explanation may continue to shape their interpretation because it remains the only available account connecting the pieces together.

The same pattern appears in health misinformation. A false claim may offer a clear reason for an illness, side effect, or public health event. Even when the claim is disproven, people often continue asking the question that the rumour originally answered. If no alternative explanation is supplied, the retracted claim can retain influence as a placeholder explanation. [ResearchGate]researchgate.netResearchGate(PDF) Misinformation and Its Correction Continued…We look at people's memory for misinformation and answer the questions o… [nature]nature.comNatureThe psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its…by UKH Ecker · 2022 · Cited by 1916 — In this Review, we describe the… Researchers have even argued that part of the continued influence effect arises because people are attempting to reason rationally with incomplete information. When a correction removes information without replacing it, individuals may continue relying on the original account because it is the only explanation available within their mental model of events. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirect He did it!She did it! No, she did not! Multiple causal…by UKH Ecker · 2015 · Cited by 164 — This implies that, while a retraction creates a “gap…

The result is a striking outcome: people can accurately remember that a rumour was false while still using it to make inferences. The correction and the rumour coexist in memory, but the rumour continues performing explanatory work. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirect He did it!She did it! No, she did not! Multiple causal…by UKH Ecker · 2015 · Cited by 164 — This implies that, while a retraction creates a “gap… [Frontiers]frontiersin.orgFrontiersThe inhibitory impact of collaboration on the continued…by G Chen · 2024 · Cited by 2 — The continued influence effect (CIE)…

Why replacement stories are usually more effective

The evidence behind misinformation correction increasingly points to a simple lesson: corrections succeed when they replace, not merely remove. An alternative explanation does not have to be elaborate, but it must plausibly account for the event and close the causal gap left by the retraction. [University of Bristol]research-information.bris.ac.ukUniversity of Bristol Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, UKH, & Cook, J2017). BeyondToday — Second, corrections must explain why the misinformation was disseminated in the first place or they must provide an… [AIHA]aiha.orgnew research on scientific misinformation17 Aug 2021 — “An alternative narrative fills the gap in a recipient's mind when a key piece of evidence is retracted,” Cacciatore writes…

Studies examining interventions against the continued influence effect repeatedly find that providing a coherent alternative account is among the most reliable ways to reduce ongoing reliance on misinformation, although no technique eliminates the effect completely. PMC [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsDo the protective effects last? The…9 Apr 2025 — The continued influence effect (CIE) refers to continued reliance on mis…

This is why effective debunking often resembles explanation rather than contradiction. A bare denial tells people what not to believe. A replacement story tells them how to understand the event instead. When myths and misconceptions function as explanations, that difference is crucial. Without a substitute explanation, the old rumour may remain the only story available to fill the gap. [Shaping Tomorrows World]shapingtomorrowsworld.orgSource details in endnotes. [SciSpace]scispace.comSuccessful correction of misinformation appears to require an alternative causal account. The alternative appears to replace the…Read…

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Further Reading

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The Constitution of Knowledge

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Thinking, Fast and Slow

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Provides cognitive foundations for understanding persistent misconceptions.

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Demonstrates the value of replacing myths with evidence-based explanations.

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Endnotes

1. Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
   Title: PMCThe role of discomfort in the continued influence effect
   Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8447889/
   Source snippet

   PMCby MW Susmann · 2021 · Cited by 90 — Research examining the continued influence effect (CIE) of misinformation has reliably found that...

2. Source: nature.com
   Link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s44159-021-00006-y
   Source snippet

   NatureThe psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its...by UKH Ecker · 2022 · Cited by 1916 — In this Review, we describe the...

3. Source: sciencedirect.com
   Title: ScienceDirect He did it!
   Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0749596X15001035
   Source snippet

   She did it! No, she did not! Multiple causal...by UKH Ecker · 2015 · Cited by 164 — This implies that, while a retraction creates a “gap...

4. Source: anecdotal.app
   Link: https://anecdotal.app/bias/continued-influence-effect/
   Source snippet

   ANECDOTALContinued influence effect | ANECDOTALWhen misinformation fills a causal role in a mental model — the warehouse fire started in...

5. Source: researchgate.net
   Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258180567_Misinformation_and_Its_Correction_Continued_Influence_and_Successful_Debiasing
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   ResearchGate(PDF) Misinformation and Its Correction Continued...We look at people's memory for misinformation and answer the questions o...

6. Source: scispace.com
   Link: https://scispace.com/pdf/the-continued-influence-of-misinformation-in-memory-what-4tijzg1jh2.pdf
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   Successful correction of misinformation appears to require an alternative causal account. The alternative appears to replace the...Read...

7. Source: aiha.org
   Title: new research on scientific misinformation
   Link: https://www.aiha.org/blog/new-research-on-scientific-misinformation
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   17 Aug 2021 — “An alternative narrative fills the gap in a recipient's mind when a key piece of evidence is retracted,” Cacciatore writes...

8. Source: brod.ntcenter.bg
   Link: https://brod.ntcenter.bg/en/continued-influence-effect/
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   Continued Influence EffectThe "Continued Influence Effect" refers to the phenomenon where misinformation continues to affect people's thi...

9. Source: sciencedirect.com
   Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027720302729
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   ScienceDirectThe rational continued influence of misinformationby SAC Desai · 2020 · Cited by 71 — Studies on the 'Continued Influence Ef...

10. Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Title: Theoretical accounts of the CIE
    Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10075451/
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    PMCExecutive function and the continued influence of misinformationby P McIlhiney · 2023 · Cited by 13 — Misinformation can continue to i...

11. Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Title: PMCExploring factors that mitigate the continued influence
    Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8627545/
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    PMCby IP Kan · 2021 · Cited by 27 — The term “continued influence effect” (CIE) refers to the phenomenon that discredited and obsolete in...

12. Source: researchgate.net
    Link: [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391015007To_be_continued_misinformation%27s_bizarre_adventure_beyond_memory_failures-exploring_non-memory-based_mechanisms_driving_the_continued_influence_effect_CIE](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391015007_To_be_continued_misinformation%27s_bizarre_adventure_beyond_memory_failures-_exploring_non-memory-based_mechanisms_driving_the_continued_influence_effect_CIE)
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    (PDF) To be continued: misinformation's bizarre adventure...18 Nov 2025 — The Continued Influence Effect (CIE) refers to the persistent...

13. Source: emc-lab.org
    Link: https://www.emc-lab.org/uploads/1/1/3/6/113627673/chapter_swireecker_revised.pdf
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    Ecker Memory & Cognition LabMisinformation and its CorrectionMarch 6, 2018 — by B Swire · Cited by 139 — The notion that retractions crea...

    Published: March 6, 2018

14. Source: shapingtomorrowsworld.org
    Link: https://www.shapingtomorrowsworld.org/debunking-handbook-part-5-filling-gap-with-alternative-explanation.html

15. Source: frontiersin.org
    Link: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1487146/full
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    FrontiersThe inhibitory impact of collaboration on the continued...by G Chen · 2024 · Cited by 2 — The continued influence effect (CIE)...

16. Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
    Link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36988856/
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    impact of misinformation corrections on source...by V Westbrook · 2023 · Cited by 26 — Research on the continued influence effect (CIE)...

17. Source: research-information.bris.ac.uk
    Title: University of Bristol Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, UKH, & Cook, J
    Link: https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/152516154/Pages_from_JARMAC_2017_59_Revision_1_V1.pdf
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    (2017). BeyondToday — Second, corrections must explain why the misinformation was disseminated in the first place or they must provide an...

18. Source: journals.sagepub.com
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    Sage JournalsDo the protective effects last? The...9 Apr 2025 — The continued influence effect (CIE) refers to continued reliance on mis...

19. Source: Wikipedia
    Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misinformation
    Source snippet

    MisinformationMisinformation can include inaccurate, incomplete, misleading, or false information as well as selective or half-truths...

Additional References

1. Source: climatechangecommunication.org
   Link: https://www.climatechangecommunication.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/DebunkingHandbook2020.pdf
   Source snippet

   Debunking HandbookCorrections are most successful if people are suspicious, or made to be suspicious, of the source or [intent]({{ 'intent/' | relative_url }}) of the misi...

2. Source: research-information.bris.ac.uk
   Link: https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/files/298563464/Ecker_v4_TSshorten_UE_clean.pdf
   Source snippet

   bris.ac.ukEcker, UKH, Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio...In this Review, we describe the cognitive, social, and affective f...

3. Source: esafety.gov.au
   Title: fake news and misinformation
   Link: https://www.esafety.gov.au/key-topics/fake-news-and-misinformation
   Source snippet

   20 Jan 2026 — Information, images and videos posted online can be untrue or misleading, so check the facts before sharing them.Read more...

4. Source: cambridge.org
   Link: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/social-media-and-democracy/misinformation-and-its-correction/61FA7FD743784A723BA234533012E810
   Source snippet

   First, corrections are rarely able to fully eliminate reliance on misinformation in...Read more...

5. Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
   Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10623619/
   Source snippet

   PMCby Z Adams · 2023 · Cited by 144 — The consensus view points to advancements in information technology (eg, the Internet, social media...

6. Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
   Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8715407/
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   PMCby B Swire-Thompson · 2021 · Cited by 79 — The current paper investigated how altering the format of corrections influences people's s...

7. Source: abc.net.au
   Link: https://www.abc.net.au/education/defining-misinformation/106152200
   Source snippet

   Media Explained — Misinformation: Defining misinformation15 Jan 2026 — Disinformation, on the other hand, is false information that's cre...

8. Source: parkeschampionpost.com.au
   Title: munity invited to explore truth and misinformation
   Link: https://www.parkeschampionpost.com.au/news/community-invited-to-explore-truth-and-misinformation-ja6cc5bk
   Source snippet

   Community invited to explore truth and misinformation...

9. Source: link.springer.com
   Link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s41235-021-00335-9
   Source snippet

   factors that mitigate the continued influence of...by IP Kan · 2021 · Cited by 27 — The term “continued influence effect” (CIE) refers t...

10. Source: digitalcommons.chapman.edu
    Link: https://digitalcommons.chapman.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1061&context=comm_articles
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    Digital CommonsA Meta-Analytic Examination of the Continued Influence of...by N Walter · 2019 · Cited by 649 — A meta-analysis was condu...