When Wrong Earth Models Make Sense

Introduction

Children’s ideas about the shape of the Earth provide one of the clearest demonstrations that misconceptions are often logical attempts to make sense of conflicting information. In a landmark series of studies, researchers found that many children did not simply choose between “the Earth is flat” and “the Earth is round”. Instead, they built imaginative intermediate models that combined classroom teaching with everyday experience. These models were wrong from a scientific standpoint, but they were internally coherent and often remarkably consistent. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

The case matters because it reveals how myths and misconceptions can persist. People rarely abandon an existing mental model all at once. When new information clashes with what seems obvious from experience, they often create hybrid explanations that preserve as much coherence as possible. Children’s Earth models show this process in a particularly visible form. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

Why Flat Ground Conflicts with a Round Earth

For a young child, the idea that the Earth is a sphere creates an immediate problem. Everything in everyday experience appears to support the opposite conclusion. The ground looks flat. Buildings stand upright. People do not appear to be hanging upside down. Nothing suggests that the surface curves dramatically beneath one’s feet. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

Stella Vosniadou and William Brewer argued that children begin with certain deeply rooted assumptions derived from ordinary observation. Two are especially important:

• The ground people live on is flat. [www2.pd.infn.it]www2.pd.infn.itMental Models of the Earth Conceptual Changeby S VOSNIADOU · 1992 · Cited by 3046 — This paper presents the results of an experiment whic…
• Objects need support underneath them and cannot simply remain suspended in space.

These assumptions work well in everyday life, so children treat them as reliable facts about the world. The challenge arises when adults tell them that the Earth is round. Instead of immediately replacing their existing assumptions, many children try to integrate the new information into their old framework. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

This helps explain why misconceptions can be so stable. The problem is not ignorance. The child is actively reasoning. The misconception emerges because two seemingly trustworthy sources of information—direct experience and cultural instruction—point in different directions. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

Disc, Hollow, and Flattened Sphere Models

The most influential evidence comes from a 1992 study in which children were interviewed about the Earth’s shape, where people live, where the sky is located, and what would happen at the Earth’s edge. Rather than producing random answers, many children gave patterns of responses that fit identifiable mental models. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

The Disc Earth

Some children imagined the Earth as a large flat disc. This model preserved the appearance of flat ground while acknowledging that the Earth might be round in the sense of being circular. In this view, one could potentially reach an edge and fall off. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

The model demonstrates a subtle point: the child is not rejecting the word “round”. Instead, “round” is interpreted as a flat circle rather than a globe. The misconception arises from a difference in meaning rather than a simple factual error. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

The Dual Earth

One of the most striking findings was the “dual Earth” model. Children using this model effectively maintained two Earths at once. There was a round Earth discussed by adults and shown in books, but there was also the flat ground where people actually lived. The scientific Earth and the experienced Earth coexisted without being fully integrated. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

This is a powerful example of how new information can be stored without fundamentally restructuring an older worldview. The child accepts the taught fact while preserving the original explanatory framework. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

The Hollow Sphere

Some children accepted that the Earth was spherical yet still believed people must stand on a flat surface. Their solution was to place people inside the sphere. In the hollow-sphere model, humans lived on a flat interior region, while the Earth itself remained round when viewed from outside. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

From an adult perspective this seems bizarre. From the child’s perspective it solves multiple problems simultaneously:

The model is creative because it reconciles conflicting constraints rather than choosing one side and ignoring the other. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

The Flattened Sphere

Another group imagined a thick, pancake-like Earth. It was rounded around the sides but flattened on the top and bottom where people lived. This model preserved the idea that the Earth is generally spherical while retaining a flat region suitable for human habitation. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental… [PsyBlog]spring.org.ukhow children learn earth isnt flatPsyBlogHow Children Learn the Earth Isn't Flat30 Apr 2008 — Hollow sphere: thought we live inside the Earth on a flat area (12/60). Flatt…

Again, the misconception is not random. It reflects an effort to minimise conflict between observation and instruction. The child modifies the scientific claim just enough to fit prior assumptions. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

What These Models Reveal About Conceptual Change

The Earth studies became influential because they shifted attention away from isolated wrong answers and toward underlying mental models. Researchers argued that conceptual change often involves restructuring a network of assumptions rather than replacing a single belief. ScienceDirect [academia]academia.eduConceptual Change and EducationAcademia(PDF) Conceptual Change and EducationReview of Educational Research, 57, 51–67. Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W.F. (1992). Mental mode… A child cannot fully understand a spherical Earth simply by memorising the sentence“the Earth is round”. To make sense of the scientific model, the child must also revise ideas about gravity, up and down, support, space, and perspective. Until those related concepts change, hybrid models remain attractive. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

This insight helped shape broader theories of conceptual change in science education. Learning was increasingly seen as a process of reorganising existing knowledge structures rather than filling an empty container with facts. ERIC [Academia At the same time]academia.eduConceptual Change and EducationAcademia(PDF) Conceptual Change and EducationReview of Educational Research, 57, 51–67. Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W.F. (1992). Mental mode…, later researchers questioned whether all of the identified Earth models were as coherent and widespread as originally proposed. Some studies suggested that interview methods and drawing tasks may have exaggerated the appearance of stable mental models. Children can misunderstand questions, switch between perspectives, or produce inconsistent answers. Nevertheless, even critics generally agree that children often struggle to integrate intuitive beliefs with scientific explanations and that hybrid understandings are common during learning. [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPubMedMental models and other misconceptions in children's…by G Panagiotaki · 2009 · Cited by 122 — This study investigated the claim… [ResearchGate]researchgate.netReframing the Classical Approach to Conceptual ChangeFrom a theoretical perspective, these difficulties can be explained through Vosniado…

What Public Myth Correction Can Learn from Classrooms

The Earth-model case has implications far beyond childhood astronomy. It illustrates why simply presenting a correct fact does not always eliminate a misconception.

When children hear that the Earth is spherical, they do not automatically discard beliefs that flat ground supports people. Instead, they create intermediary explanations that preserve both ideas. Adults often behave similarly when confronting corrections to political, health, economic, or scientific myths. New information is frequently grafted onto older assumptions rather than replacing them. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

Three lessons emerge:

Children’s Earth models remain a classic example because they expose a process that is usually hidden. They show the mind trying to preserve coherence while adapting to new evidence. The resulting models may be scientifically wrong, but they reveal an important truth about myths and misconceptions: people are often not failing to think. They are thinking with the best model they currently have. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change…by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental…

Amazon book picks

Further Reading

Books and field guides related to When Wrong Earth Models Make Sense. Use these as the next step if you want deeper reading beyond the article.

Book

Thinking, Fast and Slow

By Daniel Kahneman

Helps explain why intuitive observations can conflict with scientific models.

See on Amazon

Book

A short history of nearly everything

By Bill Bryson

First published 2003. Subjects: Science, Popular works, Ciencia, Obras populares, Science, popular works.

See on Amazon

Book

The Magic of Reality

By Richard Dawkins, Dave McKean

First published 2001. Subjects: Miscellanea, Science, Philosophy, Reality, Nature.

See on Amazon

Book

The Knowledge Illusion

By Steven Sloman, Philip Fernbach

First published 2017. Subjects: Cognitive psychology, Knowledge, theory of, Knowledge, sociology of, Thought and thinking, Intellect.

See on Amazon

Browse more on Amazon: Thinking, Fast and Slow A short history of nearly everything The Magic of Reality

As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases.

eBay marketplace picks

Marketplace Samples

Example marketplace items related to this page. Use the search link to explore similar finds on eBay.

Shop location

Using USA USA USAUKCanadaAustraliaIreland

Example eBay listing

Personalized Teacher Mug: Custom Name Gift, End of Year Appreciation

Search eBay.co.uk: teacher mug

Browse similar on eBay.co.uk

Example eBay listing

Personalised Teacher Mug Name Gift Mug Personalised End Of School Gift Teachers

Search eBay.co.uk: teacher mug

Browse similar on eBay.co.uk

Example eBay listing

personalised Thank you Teacher mugs 7 choices Name Tea Coffee Mug White 11Oz

Search eBay.co.uk: teacher mug

Browse similar on eBay.co.uk

Example eBay listing

Custom Teacher Name Tumbler | Personalised Coffee Cup for Teachers | Gift Mug

Search eBay.co.uk: teacher mug

Browse similar on eBay.co.uk

Browse more on eBay.co.uk

Example items shown for inspiration; availability and pricing can change. Branchoria may earn a commission if you purchase through outbound eBay links.

Endnotes

1. Source: sciencedirect.com
   Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/001002859290018W
   Source snippet

   ScienceDirectMental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change...by S Vosniadou · 1992 · Cited by 3047 — Five alternative mental...

2. Source: sciencedirect.com
   Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022096508001513
   Source snippet

   ScienceDirectMental models and other misconceptions in children's...by G Panagiotaki · 2009 · Cited by 122 — Before any exposure to inst...

3. Source: academia.edu
   Title: Conceptual Change and Education
   Link: https://www.academia.edu/48524586/Conceptual_Change_and_Education
   Source snippet

   Academia(PDF) Conceptual Change and EducationReview of Educational Research, 57, 51–67. Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W.F. (1992). Mental mode...

4. Source: researchgate.net
   Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278716843_Reframing_the_Classical_Approach_to_Conceptual_Change_Preconceptions_Misconceptions_and_Synthetic_Models
   Source snippet

   Reframing the Classical Approach to Conceptual ChangeFrom a theoretical perspective, these difficulties can be explained through Vosniado...

5. Source: researchgate.net
   Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23682515_Mental_models_and_other_misconceptions_in_children%27s_understanding_of_the_earth
   Source snippet

   children have naïve, but coherent, mental models of the earth, such as the flat earth and the hollow sphere. Recent studies have challeng...

6. Source: www2.pd.infn.it
   Link: https://www2.pd.infn.it/~lacaprar/ProgettoScuola/Biblio/Vosniadou%20-%20Mental%20Models%20of%20the%20Earth%20Conceptual%20Change.pdf
   Source snippet

   Mental Models of the Earth Conceptual Changeby S VOSNIADOU · 1992 · Cited by 3046 — This paper presents the results of an experiment whic...

7. Source: spring.org.uk
   Title: how children learn earth isnt flat
   Link: https://www.spring.org.uk/2008/04/how-children-learn-earth-isnt-flat.php
   Source snippet

   PsyBlogHow Children Learn the Earth Isn't Flat30 Apr 2008 — Hollow sphere: thought we live inside the Earth on a flat area (12/60). Flatt...

8. Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
   Link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19100995/
   Source snippet

   PubMedMental models and other misconceptions in children's...by G Panagiotaki · 2009 · Cited by 122 — This study investigated the claim...

9. Source: gral.ip.rm.cnr.it
   Link: https://gral.ip.rm.cnr.it/borghi/vosniadou.pdf
   Source snippet

   Mental models of the earth: A study of conceptual change in childhood. Cognitive Psychology, 24, pp. 535-85. Vosniadou, S...Read more...

Additional References

1. Source: link.springer.com
   Link: https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-642-77228-3_7
   Source snippet

   SpringerFostering Conceptual Change: The Role of ComputerChildren with a hollow sphere model also interpret the rotation of the earth to...

2. Source: carlhendrick.substack.com
   Title: The Learning Dispatch“Well-Organised Misunderstanding”: The Fine Art of Being
   Link: https://carlhendrick.substack.com/p/well-organised-misunderstanding-the
   Source snippet

   children don't picture the Earth as a sphere, but as a flattened disc or a hollow sphere. Their model is wrong but internally consistent...

3. Source: scispace.com
   Link: https://scispace.com/pdf/the-concept-of-the-earth-s-shape-a-study-of-conceptual-129cu3mjf0.pdf
   Source snippet

   school children's concept of the earth's shape and the related concept of...Read more...

4. Source: files.eric.ed.gov
   Title: ERICDOCUMENT RESUME Vosniadou, Stella Designing Curricula
   Link: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED404098.pdf
   Source snippet

   Cognitive Psychology. Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W. F. (in preparation). Elementary school...Read more...

5. Source: nsuworks.nova.edu
   Link: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1128&context=edp
   Source snippet

   Models: How Children Learn the Earth Isnâ•Žt Flat25 Apr 2025 — The fourth category was the hollow sphere, which children thought humans l...

6. Source: education.asu.edu
   Title: chi concpetualchangechapter 0
   Link: https://education.asu.edu/sites/g/files/litvpz656/files/lcl/chi_concpetualchangechapter_0.pdf
   Source snippet

   Three Types of Conceptual Change: Belief Revision, Mental...by MTH Chi · Cited by 1387 — Likewise, Vosniadou and Brewer (1992) have show...

7. Source: youtube.com
   Title: Mental Models and Scientific Understanding
   Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0h9Vq1p8yYQ
   Source snippet

   These videos explore the cognitive processes involved in how learners, particularly children, construct mental models of scientific pheno...

8. Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
   Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6713729/
   Source snippet

   PMCby DP de la Hera · 2019 · Cited by 16 — Children's conceptual knowledge about the earth was quantified by mapping their verbal, drawn...

9. Source: bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com
   Link: https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1348/026151005X39116
   Source snippet

   BPS Psych HubChildren's representations of the earth: A methodological...23 Dec 2010 — Hollow and dual mental models are 'synthetic' bec...

10. Source: link.springer.com
    Link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A%3A1008697908361
    Source snippet

    & Brewer, W.F.: 1992, 'Mental Models of the Earth: A Study of Conceptual Change in Childhood', Cognitive Psychology 24, 535-585. Google...