Within Tone
When Public Correction Becomes Public Shaming
Public correction can inform bystanders, but ridicule and quote-post dunking can turn fact-checking into a status fight.
On this page
- Why public settings raise the cost of accepting correction
- How dunking rewards the corrector more than the truth
- Proportionate replies for different levels of harm and reach
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Introduction
If a teacher has limited time to improve learning, the evidence points much more strongly towards retrieval practice than learning-style matching. Retrieval practice means actively recalling information from memory through low-stakes quizzes, questioning, flashcards, summaries or other recall activities. Learning-style matching is the idea that students learn better when teaching is tailored to a preferred style such as visual, auditory or kinaesthetic. Decades of research have found substantial support for retrieval practice, while repeated reviews have failed to find convincing evidence that matching instruction to a student’s preferred learning style improves learning outcomes. [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPubMedtaking memory tests improves long-term retentionby HL Roediger · 2006 · Cited by 4716 — Taking a memory test not only assesses what… [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPubMedtaking memory tests improves long-term retentionby HL Roediger · 2006 · Cited by 4716 — Taking a memory test not only assesses what…
Within the broader discussion of educational myths and misconceptions, this comparison matters because schools often face practical choices. Time spent identifying and categorising students by learning style is time not spent on approaches with stronger evidence. The key question is not whether students have preferences—they do—but whether teaching should be organised around those preferences. Current evidence suggests that helping students retrieve knowledge repeatedly is a far more reliable route to lasting learning. [University of Waterloo]uwaterloo.caUniversity of WaterlooUnderstanding Learning Styles | Centre for Teaching…by SF Model — However, there is virtually no evidence that s…
Retrieval and practice: why recalling information changes learning
Retrieval practice is sometimes called the testing effect or test-enhanced learning. The central finding is surprisingly simple: trying to remember information strengthens memory more effectively than merely reviewing it. When learners retrieve information from memory, they reinforce the pathways that make future recall easier and more durable. [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPubMedtaking memory tests improves long-term retentionby HL Roediger · 2006 · Cited by 4716 — Taking a memory test not only assesses what… [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirect Testing EffectTesting Effect - an overviewThe testing effect refers most generally to the finding that learning and memory are facilitated by the inclu…
One influential set of experiments by Henry Roediger and Jeffrey Karpicke found that students who repeatedly tested themselves retained more information after a delay than students who spent the same time rereading material. Immediate performance sometimes favoured rereading, but longer-term retention favoured retrieval practice. PubMed [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage Journals Test-Enhanced LearningRoediger, Jeffrey D….Our aim in the two experiments reported here was to investigate the testing effect under educationally relevant c…
The strength of the evidence is not limited to a single study. Reviews of learning techniques consistently identify practice testing and retrieval-based approaches as among the most effective strategies available to learners and teachers. Dunlosky and colleagues rated practice testing as a high-utility technique across ages, subjects and educational contexts. PubMed [American Federation of Teachers]aft.orgWe rated two strategies—practice testing and distributed practice—as the most effective of those we reviewed because…Read more…
Research has also shown that retrieval practice can support more than simple memorisation. Under appropriate conditions it can improve understanding, application of concepts and transfer of knowledge to new problems. More recent work continues to find benefits for both retention and application when retrieval opportunities are sufficiently repeated and spaced over time. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirect Testing EffectTesting Effect - an overviewThe testing effect refers most generally to the finding that learning and memory are facilitated by the inclu…
This does not mean constant formal testing. Effective retrieval can include:
- Short quizzes with no grades attached.
- Questions at the start of lessons.
- Flashcards requiring active recall.
- Explaining a concept from memory.
- Writing down key ideas before checking notes.
- Cumulative review of earlier material.
The common feature is effortful recall rather than passive exposure. [The Learning Scientists]learningscientists.orgThe Learning ScientistsOptimising Learning Using Retrieval Practice27 Sept 2018 — Retrieval practice, or reconstructing knowledge by brin…
Why learning-style matching remains persuasive despite weak evidence
The popularity of learning styles comes from an intuitively appealing idea: people are different, so teaching should be matched to those differences. Many students also report strong preferences for diagrams, listening, discussion or hands-on activities. The problem is that preference and effectiveness are not the same thing. [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPubMedtaking memory tests improves long-term retentionby HL Roediger · 2006 · Cited by 4716 — Taking a memory test not only assesses what…
The strongest version of the learning-styles claim is often called the meshing hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, visual learners should learn best from visual instruction, auditory learners from spoken instruction, and so on. To support the theory, researchers would need evidence that different learners systematically benefit from different instructional formats in predictable ways. Large reviews have found little evidence that this pattern occurs. [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage Journals Test-Enhanced LearningRoediger, Jeffrey D….Our aim in the two experiments reported here was to investigate the testing effect under educationally relevant c…
The influential review by Harold Pashler and colleagues examined the available research and concluded that there was insufficient evidence to justify educational practices based on learning-style assessments. Later summaries and educational reviews have reached similar conclusions, finding little support for the idea that matching instruction to a diagnosed learning style improves achievement. [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPubMedtaking memory tests improves long-term retentionby HL Roediger · 2006 · Cited by 4716 — Taking a memory test not only assesses what… [deansforimpact.org]deansforimpact.orgLearning styles: what does the research say?| April 28, 201628 Apr 2016 — In their review, Pashler et al found only one study that gave even partial support to the meshing hypothesi… [University of Waterloo]uwaterloo.caUniversity of WaterlooUnderstanding Learning Styles | Centre for Teaching…by SF Model — However, there is virtually no evidence that s…
Importantly, rejecting learning-style matching does not mean all students learn identically. Learners differ in prior knowledge, motivation, reading ability, language proficiency and many other factors. The evidence simply suggests that sensory-style categories such as visual, auditory and kinaesthetic are not a useful basis for tailoring instruction. [University of Waterloo]uwaterloo.caUniversity of WaterlooUnderstanding Learning Styles | Centre for Teaching…by SF Model — However, there is virtually no evidence that s…
Varying instruction by task is not the same as teaching to styles
One reason the learning-styles myth survives is that it becomes mixed up with a sensible educational principle: different content is often best taught in different ways.
A map is usually easier to learn through visual representation. Pronunciation often requires listening. Physical skills require practice. Scientific models may benefit from diagrams, discussion and practical demonstrations combined. Choosing methods that fit the content is not the same as choosing methods that fit a supposed learner type. [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage Journals Test-Enhanced LearningRoediger, Jeffrey D….Our aim in the two experiments reported here was to investigate the testing effect under educationally relevant c…
In practice, effective teaching often uses multiple representations because the subject matter demands it. A mathematics teacher may combine spoken explanation, worked examples and diagrams. A language teacher may combine reading, listening and speaking activities. The goal is to represent the knowledge effectively, not to match students to fixed categories. [University of Waterloo]uwaterloo.caUniversity of WaterlooUnderstanding Learning Styles | Centre for Teaching…by SF Model — However, there is virtually no evidence that s…
This distinction matters for implementation. Schools sometimes abandon learning styles only to worry that they must now teach everyone in exactly the same way. The evidence suggests a different conclusion: vary instruction according to the task, while using evidence-based learning activities such as retrieval practice to strengthen memory and understanding. [My College]my.chartered.collegeMy CollegeThe problem with learning styles: debunking the meshing…22 Feb 2018 — The idea that catering to a learner's favoured sensory…
Checking understanding instead of classifying learners
A practical advantage of retrieval practice is that it generates useful information for teachers. Every retrieval opportunity reveals what students can and cannot recall. This creates immediate feedback about understanding, misconceptions and forgotten material. [thinkingaboutuni.com]thinkingaboutuni.comPractice Testing - So You're Thinking About UniversityNot only does retrieval practice help students learn material, at the same time it…
Learning-style classification, by contrast, often provides little actionable information. Knowing that a student describes themselves as a visual learner does not reliably indicate which explanations will produce stronger learning. Knowing whether that student can retrieve and apply yesterday’s lesson does. [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPubMedtaking memory tests improves long-term retentionby HL Roediger · 2006 · Cited by 4716 — Taking a memory test not only assesses what…
Retrieval activities also help learners judge their own knowledge more accurately. Students frequently mistake familiarity for mastery. Rereading notes can create the feeling of knowing, whereas attempting retrieval exposes gaps that still need attention. This is one reason retrieval practice often improves both learning and self-monitoring. [thinkingaboutuni.com]thinkingaboutuni.comPractice Testing - So You're Thinking About UniversityNot only does retrieval practice help students learn material, at the same time it… ScienceDirect For schools seeking an evidence-based alternative to learning-style programmes [sciencedirect.com]sciencedirect.comScienceDirect Testing EffectTesting Effect - an overviewThe testing effect refers most generally to the finding that learning and memory are facilitated by the inclu…, a useful shift is from asking, “What type of learner is this student?” to asking, “What can this student currently retrieve, explain and apply?” The second question is more closely tied to observable learning and is supported by a much stronger research base. [pdf]pdf.retrievalpractice.orgKeywords: test-enhanced learning, testing…Read more… Retrieval Practice [EEF]educationendowmentfoundation.org.ukdoes research on retrieval practice translate into classroom practiceEEF Blog: Does research on 'retrieval practice' translate…5 Dec 2019 — Retrieval practice is strongly supported by over 100 years of…
What the evidence means for classroom decisions
The comparison between retrieval practice and learning-style matching illustrates a broader lesson about educational myths. An idea can feel intuitive, become widely accepted and still lack strong supporting evidence.
Current research does not suggest that teachers should ignore learner differences. Rather, it suggests focusing on differences that affect learning outcomes and using strategies with demonstrated benefits. Retrieval practice has accumulated extensive support across laboratory and classroom research, while learning-style matching has repeatedly struggled to meet the evidential standard required for educational adoption. PubMed [PDF Retrieval Practice]pdf.retrievalpractice.orgKeywords: test-enhanced learning, testing…Read more… PubMed [2deansforimpact.org]deansforimpact.orgLearning styles: what does the research say?| April 28, 201628 Apr 2016 — In their review, Pashler et al found only one study that gave even partial support to the meshing hypothesi…
For implementation, the practical implication is straightforward: if the goal is stronger retention, better long-term learning and clearer evidence of understanding, regular retrieval opportunities are likely to produce greater benefits than organising teaching around visual, auditory or kinaesthetic learner categories. [American Federation of Teachers]aft.orgWe rated two strategies—practice testing and distributed practice—as the most effective of those we reviewed because…Read more…
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Further Reading
Books and field guides related to When Public Correction Becomes Public Shaming. Use these as the next step if you want deeper reading beyond the article.
Mistakes Were Made (but Not by Me) Third Edition
Explains why shame and threat make people defend errors rather than revise them.
How to Have Impossible Conversations
First published 2019. Subjects: Interpersonal communication, Conversation.
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Endnotes
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Source: deansforimpact.org
Title: Learning styles: what does the research say?
Link: https://www.deansforimpact.org/about/news-and-blog/2016/04/28/learning-styles-what-does-the-research-saySource snippet
| April 28, 201628 Apr 2016 — In their review, Pashler et al found only one study that gave even partial support to the meshing hypothesi...
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Source: sciencedirect.com
Title: ScienceDirect Testing Effect
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/testing-effectSource snippet
Testing Effect - an overviewThe testing effect refers most generally to the finding that learning and memory are facilitated by the inclu...
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Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959475217301810Source snippet
Investigating the testing effect: Retrieval as a characteristic...by CL Bae · 2019 · Cited by 103 — The phenomenon termed the 'testing e...
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Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959475225001434Source snippet
ScienceDirectEffects of retrieval practice on retention and application...by D Corral · 2025 · Cited by 6 — The current experiments expl...
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Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0361476X17305027Source snippet
•. For non-tested items, students performed better on chapter...
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Source: structural-learning.com
Title: retrieval practice a teachers guide
Link: https://www.structural-learning.com/post/retrieval-practice-a-teachers-guideSource snippet
Retrieval practice6 Oct 2021 — Retrieval practice is the process of bringing information to mind so learners strengthen what they know an...
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Source: thinkingaboutuni.com
Link: https://thinkingaboutuni.com/book/practice_testing.htmlSource snippet
Practice Testing - So You're Thinking About UniversityNot only does retrieval practice help students learn material, at the same time it...
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Source: structural-learning.com
Link: https://www.structural-learning.com/post/testing-effect-retrieval-practiceSource snippet
The Testing Effect: Why Retrieval Practice Works29 Dec 2025 — Research shows retrieving info aids learning more than rereading (Roediger...
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Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0361476X20301041Source snippet
Supporting the self-regulated use of retrieval practiceby M Broeren · 2021 · Cited by 28 — This study investigated whether an instruction...
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Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16507066/Source snippet
PubMedtaking memory tests improves long-term retentionby HL Roediger · 2006 · Cited by 4716 — Taking a memory test not only assesses what...
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Source: journals.sagepub.com
Title: Sage Journals Test-Enhanced Learning
Link: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.xSource snippet
Roediger, Jeffrey D....Our aim in the two experiments reported here was to investigate the testing effect under educationally relevant c...
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Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26162104/Source snippet
PubMedLearning Styles: Concepts and Evidenceby H Pashler · 2008 · Cited by 4977 — Learning styles refers to the concept that individuals...
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Source: journals.sagepub.com
Title: j.1539 6053.2009.01038.x
Link: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.xSource snippet
Sage JournalsLearning Styles: Concepts and Evidenceby H Pashler · 2008 · Cited by 4977 — The most common—but not the only—hypothesis abou...
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Source: uwaterloo.ca
Link: https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/catalogs/tip-sheets/understanding-your-learning-styleSource snippet
University of WaterlooUnderstanding Learning Styles | Centre for Teaching...by SF Model — However, there is virtually no evidence that s...
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Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26173288/Source snippet
PubMedImproving Students' Learning With Effective...The techniques include elaborative interrogation, self-explanation, summarization, h...
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Source: aft.org
Link: https://www.aft.org/ae/fall2013/dunloskySource snippet
We rated two strategies—practice testing and distributed practice—as the most effective of those we reviewed because...Read more...
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Source: learningscientists.org
Link: https://www.learningscientists.org/blog/2018/9/27-1Source snippet
The Learning ScientistsOptimising Learning Using Retrieval Practice27 Sept 2018 — Retrieval practice, or reconstructing knowledge by brin...
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Source: my.chartered.college
Link: [https://my.chartered.college/impact_article/the-problem-with-learning-styles-debunkingSource snippet
My CollegeThe problem with learning styles: debunking the meshing...22 Feb 2018 — The idea that catering to a learner's favoured sensory...
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Source: pdf.retrievalpractice.org
Link: https://pdf.retrievalpractice.org/guide/Roediger_Agarwal_etal_2011_JEPA.pdfSource snippet
Keywords: test-enhanced learning, testing...Read more...
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Source: education-ni.gov.uk
Title: Retrieval Practice
Link: https://www.education-ni.gov.uk/sites/default/files/2025-04/May%20Newsletter%20-%20Retrieval%20Practice%20%20What%20it%20is%2C%20Why%20it%20Works%20and%20How%20to%20Do%20It%20Better.PDFSource snippet
This is one of the most robust findings from the science of learning (Dunlosky et...Read more...
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Source: Wikipedia
Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LearningSource snippet
LearningLearning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences.Read...
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Source: appstate.edu
Link: https://www.appstate.edu/~bromanfulksj/Pashler%20et%20al%20-%20Learning%20Styles.pdfSource snippet
Learning Styles - Concepts and Evidenceby H Pashler · Cited by 2 — In our review, we searched for evidence for both this broad version of...
Additional References
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Source: researchgate.net
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233600402_Learning_Styles_Concepts_and_EvidenceSource snippet
(PDF) Learning Styles: Concepts and EvidenceThe most common—but not the only—hypothesis about the instructional relevance of learning sty...
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Source: gc-bs.org
Link: https://gc-bs.org/articles/from-styles-to-science-debunking-the-learning-styles-myth-and-embracing-an-evidence-based-framework-for-learning/Source snippet
Debunking the Learning Styles Myth and Embracing an...12 Jan 2026 — In 2008, a team of prominent cognitive psychologists led by Harold P...
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Source: mirjamglessmer.com
Title: the learning styles myth based on pashler et al 2008 nancekivell et al 2020
Link: https://mirjamglessmer.com/2021/06/25/the-learning-styles-myth-based-on-pashler-et-al-2008-nancekivell-et-al-2020/Source snippet
(2008) state that they could not find studies showing that kind of evidence. If one method works better for all students with...Read more...
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Source: frontiersin.org
Link: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1727423/fullSource snippet
rieval practice may fail to confer learning benefits when task demands and cognitive load are high...Read more...
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Source: my.chartered.college
Title: does research on retrieval practice translate into classroom practice
Link: https://my.chartered.college/impact_article/does-research-on-retrieval-practice-translate-into-classroom-practice/Source snippet
research on retrieval practice translate into...12 Sept 2018 — Retrieval practice is strongly supported by over 100 years of research an...
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Source: educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk
Title: does research on retrieval practice translate into classroom practice
Link: https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/news/does-research-on-retrieval-practice-translate-into-classroom-practiceSource snippet
EEF Blog: Does research on 'retrieval practice' translate...5 Dec 2019 — Retrieval practice is strongly supported by over 100 years of...
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Source: my.chartered.college
Title: retrieval practice vs restudy an authentic classroom investigation
Link: https://my.chartered.college/impact_article/retrieval-practice-vs-restudy-an-authentic-classroom-investigation/Source snippet
retrieval practice improve student performance within...13 May 2024 — Dunlosky J, Rawson KA, Marsh EJ et al.(2013) Improving students' l...
Published: May 2024
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Source: educationalneuroscience.org.uk
Link: https://educationalneuroscience.org.uk/wordpress/resources/neuromyth-or-neurofact/children-have-different-learning-styles/Source snippet
Although as many as 71 different learning style...Read more...
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Source: digitalcommons.usf.edu
Title: Digital Commons USF”Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence” by H
Link: https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/psy_facpub/1765/Source snippet
H Pashler · Cited by 5022 — “Learning styles” refers to the concept that individuals differ in regard to what mode of instr...
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Source: youtube.com
Title: The Testing Effect & Retrieval practice: the number 1 study hack Henry Roediger
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G6u9_lbW2hYSource snippet
The Testing Effect & Retrieval practice: the number 1 study hackHenry Roediger - Retrieval Practice to Enhance Learning and Retention &mi...
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