Within Media Literacy
Can warning people before myths work better?
Prebunking teaches people to recognize familiar misinformation tactics before a specific false claim becomes memorable.
On this page
- How inoculation theory applies to misinformation
- Tactics that prebunking commonly targets
- Why prevention can outperform later correction
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Introduction
Can warning people before myths work better than correcting them afterwards? Evidence increasingly suggests that it can. Prebunking is a preventive approach that teaches people to recognise the techniques used to spread misinformation before they encounter a specific false claim. Rather than memorising fact-checks for thousands of individual myths, people learn to spot recurring patterns such as emotional manipulation, conspiracy framing, impersonation of expertise, scapegoating, and misleading use of evidence. Research in psychology describes this process as a form of “inoculation”: exposing people to a weakened example of a manipulation tactic can build resistance when they later encounter stronger versions in the real world. [Taylor & Francis Online]tandfonline.comTaylor & Francis OnlineCountering Misinformation and Fake News Through…by S Lewandowsky · 2021 · Cited by 1099 — Countering Misinforma…
Within media literacy, prebunking matters because myths often become harder to challenge once they have been repeated, shared, and woven into social conversations. Prevention aims to interrupt that process before familiarity gives misinformation an advantage. [First Draft]firstdraftnews.orgFirst DraftA guide to prebunking: a promising way to inoculate against…29 Jun 2021 — Even when we've been told that the misinformation…
How inoculation theory applies to misinformation
The idea behind prebunking comes from inoculation theory, a psychological framework first developed to explain resistance to persuasion. The modern adaptation treats misinformation similarly to a biological contagion: people are exposed to a small, controlled example of a deceptive tactic, along with an explanation of how it works, so that they can recognise and resist it later. Researchers often describe the resulting resistance as a form of “mental antibody”. [Cambridge Repository]repository.cam.ac.ukCambridge RepositoryPrebunking interventions based on the psychological theory of…by J Roozenbeek · 2020 · Cited by 392 — This study f…
A typical prebunking intervention contains two elements:
- A warning that people may encounter misleading information.
- A demonstration of the manipulation technique and why it is deceptive.
The goal is not to tell people what conclusion to reach. Instead, it teaches them how manipulation operates. Because many myths rely on the same persuasive tactics, recognising the technique can help people evaluate new claims they have never seen before. [compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com]compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.comfake experts) that underlies the misinformation without… Countering misinformation and fake news through inoculation and prebunking.Re…
Research reviews have found that inoculation-based interventions can reduce susceptibility to misinformation across a range of topics and cultures, particularly when they focus on techniques rather than on individual claims. [Nature]nature.comOpen source on nature.com.
Tactics that prebunking commonly targets
A key advantage of prebunking is that it focuses on recurring manipulation patterns rather than chasing every new myth. Although false claims vary, many rely on a relatively small set of persuasive techniques.
Emotional manipulation
Misinformation frequently attempts to trigger outrage, fear, anger, or disgust because strong emotions can reduce careful evaluation and encourage rapid sharing. Recent prebunking experiments have specifically trained users to recognise emotionally manipulative content and distinguish emotional appeals from evidence-based arguments. [Misinformation Review]misinforeview.hks.harvard.eduMisinformation ReviewPrebunking misinformation techniques in social media feedsby S van der Linden · 2026 — Specifically, we designed and…
A warning sign is when a message relies heavily on emotional reaction while providing little verifiable evidence.
False experts
Some myths gain credibility by presenting individuals as authorities despite lacking relevant expertise or by creating the appearance of scientific consensus where none exists. Prebunking teaches people to ask whether the cited expert has recognised credentials in the specific field being discussed and whether independent experts agree. [compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com]compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.comfake experts) that underlies the misinformation without… Countering misinformation and fake news through inoculation and prebunking.Re…
Conspiracy framing
Conspiracy narratives often claim that powerful groups are secretly coordinating to hide “the truth”. While genuine conspiracies sometimes occur, misinformation frequently uses broad accusations of cover-ups to shield claims from scrutiny. Evidence against the claim is then reinterpreted as proof that the conspiracy is working. Prebunking highlights this self-sealing logic before people encounter specific conspiracy theories. [compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com]compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.comfake experts) that underlies the misinformation without… Countering misinformation and fake news through inoculation and prebunking.Re…
Scapegoating and polarisation
Another common tactic is assigning blame to a particular group, institution, or community for complex problems. Simplified narratives that identify villains can be emotionally compelling but often obscure evidence and nuance. Prebunking encourages recognition of attempts to inflame division through oversimplified blame. [Cambridge Repository]repository.cam.ac.ukCambridge RepositoryPrebunking interventions based on the psychological theory of…by J Roozenbeek · 2020 · Cited by 392 — This study f…
Misleading use of evidence
Manipulators may cherry-pick data, present statistics without context, or highlight isolated examples while ignoring contradictory evidence. Prebunking interventions frequently teach people to look for missing context and ask whether the evidence presented represents the full picture. [Taylor & Francis Online]tandfonline.comTaylor & Francis OnlineCountering Misinformation and Fake News Through…by S Lewandowsky · 2021 · Cited by 1099 — Countering Misinforma…
What the evidence shows in practice
One of the most studied prebunking tools is Bad News, an online game developed by researchers at the University of Cambridge and collaborators. Instead of asking players to identify false claims, the game places them in the role of a misinformation creator. Players use tactics such as impersonation, emotional manipulation, conspiracy narratives, and polarisation to gain influence, learning how these techniques operate from the inside. [Nature]nature.comNatureFake news game confers psychological resistance against…by J Roozenbeek · 2019 · Cited by 982 — We find preliminary evidence tha…
Studies involving the game found that participants became better at recognising common misinformation techniques and were less likely to judge manipulative content as reliable afterwards. Similar effects have been observed across different countries and cultural settings. Nature [Cambridge Repository]repository.cam.ac.ukCambridge RepositoryPrebunking interventions based on the psychological theory of…by J Roozenbeek · 2020 · Cited by 392 — This study f…
Researchers have also tested short animated videos and social media interventions that explain manipulation tactics in under two minutes. Large-scale experiments found that these brief “psychological vaccine” messages improved people’s ability to identify misleading content on social media platforms. [University of Cambridge]cam.ac.ukScreenshot from the fake news 'vaccine' game Bad News.Read moreUniversity of CambridgeFake news 'vaccine' works: 'pre-bunk' game reduces…25 Jun 2019 — Fake news 'vaccine' works: 'pre-bunk' game red…
Importantly, evidence suggests that technique-based prebunking can generalise beyond a single myth. Someone trained to recognise emotional manipulation in one context may become more sceptical of emotionally manipulative misinformation in another. This broader transfer is one reason many researchers consider prebunking a scalable approach. [Taylor & Francis Online]tandfonline.comTaylor & Francis OnlineCountering Misinformation and Fake News Through…by S Lewandowsky · 2021 · Cited by 1099 — Countering Misinforma…
Why prevention can outperform later correction
Correcting misinformation after exposure faces several obstacles. Once people have encountered a claim repeatedly, it can feel familiar, and familiarity itself may be mistaken for truth. Social reinforcement can further strengthen belief, especially when claims become tied to identity or group membership. [First Draft]firstdraftnews.orgFirst DraftA guide to prebunking: a promising way to inoculate against…29 Jun 2021 — Even when we've been told that the misinformation…
Prebunking attempts to intervene earlier. Instead of competing with an already-established narrative, it prepares people to question the methods used to spread that narrative before it arrives. In practical terms, this means:
- Recognition can occur during first exposure rather than after belief formation.
- The same lesson can apply to many future myths.
- People do not need detailed prior knowledge of a topic to benefit.
- Prevention can operate at scale through games, videos, educational materials, and platform-based interventions. [Science]science.orgSciencePsychological inoculation improves resilience against…by J Roozenbeek · 2022 · Cited by 555 — We show that psychological inocul… [NCBI]ncbi.nlm.nih.govAgainst Misinformation in the Modern Digital Ageby CS Traberg · 2023 · Cited by 34 — One of the most well-known and thoroughly tested ino…
For media literacy programmes, this makes prebunking attractive as an upstream intervention. Instead of responding myth by myth, it aims to strengthen judgement before misinformation becomes memorable.
What prebunking can and cannot do
Although results are promising, prebunking is not a complete solution. Research generally finds modest but meaningful improvements rather than total immunity to misinformation. People remain influenced by social identity, political loyalties, emotions, and trusted networks. Some recent studies have also questioned how strongly laboratory gains translate into spontaneous behaviour in everyday online environments. [PMC]pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govNews about Bad News: Gamified Inoculation Boosts…by M Basol · 2020 · Cited by 558 — We find that playing Bad News significantly improv…
Even so, the overall evidence indicates that teaching recognition of manipulation techniques can improve resilience without broadly increasing distrust of legitimate information. Meta-analytic and experimental findings suggest that effective inoculation helps people discriminate more accurately between reliable and unreliable content rather than simply becoming cynical about everything. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectA signal detection theory meta-analysis of psychological…by A Simchon · 2025 · Cited by 7 — Our findings highlight the ef…
For that reason, prebunking is increasingly viewed as a complement to fact-checking rather than a replacement for it. Fact-checking addresses specific falsehoods after they appear, while prebunking seeks to reduce the likelihood that those falsehoods will gain traction in the first place. [Taylor & Francis Online]tandfonline.comTaylor & Francis OnlineCountering Misinformation and Fake News Through…by S Lewandowsky · 2021 · Cited by 1099 — Countering Misinforma…
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Endnotes
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Source: compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com
Link: https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/spc3.12602Source snippet
fake experts) that underlies the misinformation without... Countering misinformation and fake news through inoculation and prebunking.Re...
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Source: nature.com
Link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s44159-021-00006-y -
Source: ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK609022/Source snippet
Against Misinformation in the Modern Digital Ageby CS Traberg · 2023 · Cited by 34 — One of the most well-known and thoroughly tested ino...
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Source: nature.com
Link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-019-0279-9Source snippet
NatureFake news game confers psychological resistance against...by J Roozenbeek · 2019 · Cited by 982 — We find preliminary evidence tha...
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Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6952868/Source snippet
News about Bad News: Gamified Inoculation Boosts...by M Basol · 2020 · Cited by 558 — We find that playing Bad News significantly improv...
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Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12134459/Source snippet
The goal of inoculation is to teach people to recognize...
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Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352250X25002076Source snippet
ScienceDirectA signal detection theory meta-analysis of psychological...by A Simchon · 2025 · Cited by 7 — Our findings highlight the ef...
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Source: nature.com
Link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-32962-1Source snippet
Psychological inoculation protects against the social media...by R McPhedran · 2023 · Cited by 56 — This study provides novel evidence o...
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Source: cambridge.org
Title: Countering Misinformation (Part III)
Link: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/psychology-of-misinformation/countering-misinformation/C6E877CC9673F7FAF3DB921820DFF178Source snippet
research questions about inoculation theory and misinformation...
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Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272494426001301Source snippet
PREBUNKING INTERVENTIONS AGAINST CLIMATE...by G La Selva · 2026 — Disinformation refers to the intentional dissemination of fake news, i...
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Source: tandfonline.com
Link: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10463283.2021.1876983Source snippet
Taylor & Francis OnlineCountering Misinformation and Fake News Through...by S Lewandowsky · 2021 · Cited by 1099 — Countering Misinforma...
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Source: firstdraftnews.org
Link: https://firstdraftnews.org/articles/a-guide-to-prebunking-a-promising-way-to-inoculate-against-misinformation/Source snippet
First DraftA guide to prebunking: a promising way to inoculate against...29 Jun 2021 — Even when we've been told that the misinformation...
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Source: repository.cam.ac.uk
Link: https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/items/cebe74ab-b20f-4203-8871-ee180ef64ea2Source snippet
Cambridge RepositoryPrebunking interventions based on the psychological theory of...by J Roozenbeek · 2020 · Cited by 392 — This study f...
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Source: misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu
Link: https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/prebunking-misinformation-techniques-in-social-media-feeds-results-from-an-instagram-field-study/Source snippet
Misinformation ReviewPrebunking misinformation techniques in social media feedsby S van der Linden · 2026 — Specifically, we designed and...
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Source: science.org
Link: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abo6254Source snippet
SciencePsychological inoculation improves resilience against...by J Roozenbeek · 2022 · Cited by 555 — We show that psychological inocul...
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Source: repository.cam.ac.uk
Link: https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/items/a86cd1c0-a966-49cd-87c2-d0e64e700021Source snippet
negative impact of misinformation can reduce their communicative effectiveness. Therefore, this article explores how we can identify diff...
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Source: cam.ac.uk
Title: Screenshot from the fake news ‘vaccine’ game Bad News.Read more
Link: https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/fake-news-vaccine-works-pre-bunk-game-reduces-susceptibility-to-disinformationSource snippet
University of CambridgeFake news 'vaccine' works: 'pre-bunk' game reduces...25 Jun 2019 — Fake news 'vaccine' works: 'pre-bunk' game red...
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Source: cam.ac.uk
Link: https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/inoculateexperiment -
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Title: Countering misinformation and fake news through inoculation and prebunking
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10498317/Source snippet
Inoculation for Credibility Assessment, Sharing...by C Lu · 2023 · Cited by 116 — Current research on countering misinformation through...
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Source: sdmlab.psychol.cam.ac.uk
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European Review of Social Psychology, 32(2). 348–384. Lewandowsky, S...Read mor...
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Source: prebunking.withgoogle.com
Link: https://prebunking.withgoogle.com/docs/A_Practical_Guide_to_Prebunking_Misinformation.pdfSource snippet
Linden, “Good News About Bad News: Gamified. Inoculation Boosts [Confidence]({{ 'confidence/' | relative_url }}) and Cognitive. Immunity Against...Read more...
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Source: Wikipedia
Title: Inoculation theory
Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inoculation_theorySource snippet
Inoculation theoryIt has applicability to public [campaigns]({{ 'campaigns/' | relative_url }}) targeting misinformation and fake news, but it is not limited to misinforma...
Additional References
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Source: researchgate.net
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/368069346_Prebunking_interventions_based_on_the_psychological_theory_of_inoculation_can_reduce_susceptibility_to_misinformation_across_culturesSource snippet
(PDF) Prebunking interventions based on the...24 Feb 2023 — This study finds that the online “fake news” game, Bad News, can confer psyc...
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Source: stratcomcoe.org
Link: https://stratcomcoe.org/publications/download/Inoculation-theory-and-Misinformation-FINAL-digital-ISBN-ebbe8.pdfSource snippet
INOCULATION THEORY AND MISINFORMATIONTo do so, we first discuss how to define “misinformation”, and how it relates to various other commo...
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Source: linkedin.com
Link: https://www.linkedin.com/posts/sander-van-der-linden-156a08203_inoculation-prebunking-misinformation-activity-7177827434904326144-BuZ6Source snippet
Sander van der Linden | 18 commentsOK, pre bunking is all about being preemptive and protecting each other from the spread of misinformat...
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Source: future-industry.org
Link: https://www.future-industry.org/t41-psychological-inoculation-against-misinformation-sander-van-der-linden-university-of-cambridge/Source snippet
Sander van der Linden (University of Cambridge)Dec 9, 2024 — He co-developed the award-winning fake news game, Bad News and regularly adv...
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Source: mediawell.ssrc.org
Link: https://mediawell.ssrc.org/citations/prebunking-interventions-based-on-inoculation-theory-can-reduce-susceptibility-to-misinformation-across-cultures/Source snippet
interventions based on “inoculation” theory can...This study finds that the online “fake news” game, Bad News, can confer psychological...
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Source: youtube.com
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4NoOjxscROwSource snippet
Prebunking Misinformation on Social MediaJennifer Allen Collins found that people barely if ever consume any fake news at all and even if...
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Source: geneticliteracyproject.org
Title: Genetic Literacy Project A health “misinformation vaccine”?
Link: https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2026/02/17/a-health-misinformation-vaccine-scientists-believe-they-may-have-one/Source snippet
Scientists believe they...17 Feb 2026 —... cherry‑picked data, fake experts and emotional manipulation.... misinformation shown carefu...
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Source: cam.ac.uk
Link: https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/goviralSource snippet
to a mild dose of the methods used to disseminate fake news." Dr Sander...Read more...
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Source: doaj.org
Link: https://doaj.org/article/4dfdc9e880d342e098921d3460a95502Source snippet
chological resistance against common online misinformation strategies across...
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Source: research-information.bris.ac.uk
Title: bris.ac.uk Lewandowsky, S., & Van Der Linden, S
Link: https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/263813879/FINAL_Revision_ERSP_inoc_paper_4SvdL.pdfSource snippet
(2021). CounteringRoozenbeek and van der Linden (2018, 2019) designed a real-world active inoculation simulation in the form of a free on...
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