Within Mythcraft
Why Fact Checking Is Not Enough
Fact-checking matters, but false claims are cheap to produce and costly to correct at scale.
On this page
- The correction cost gap
- Information access and literacy
- Platform and policy support
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Introduction
Fact-checking is essential, but it cannot by itself stop myths because it usually works one claim at a time while myth-making works as a system. A false story can be produced quickly, repeated cheaply, adapted to new events and spread through trusted social networks before a correction reaches the same audience. Even when a correction works, it often reduces belief rather than erasing the original impression completely. Large cross-national research has found that fact-checks can lower belief in misinformation, while reviews of the continued influence effect show that people may still rely on corrected claims in later reasoning. [PNAS]pnas.orgPNASThe global effectiveness of fact-checking: Evidence from…by E Porter · 2021 · Cited by 344 — Meta-analysis demonstrates that fact…
The practical lesson is not that fact-checking is futile. It is that myth control needs more than a truth-versus-falsehood contest after the damage is done. It also needs better access to reliable information, stronger media and information literacy, platform design that does not reward misleading content, and policy support that treats misinformation as a governance problem rather than only a communication problem.
The correction cost gap
Fact-checking faces a basic asymmetry: false claims are cheap to create, but careful corrections are expensive to produce. A misleading post can be made from a rumour, a cropped image, a false comparison or a confident anecdote. A responsible fact-check may require tracing the original source, contacting experts, checking data, explaining context, writing clearly and updating the piece when new evidence appears. That difference matters because myth systems can generate many more claims than professional fact-checkers can investigate.
This is especially visible during fast-moving events such as elections, wars, disasters and health emergencies. The UK Parliament’s POSTnote on disinformation describes spread as a complex interaction between social media, online news, traditional media and offline spaces, not a simple pipeline from one bad source to one misled reader. It also highlights the challenge of keeping up with increasingly sophisticated artificial intelligence technology, which can help produce misleading text, images and videos at speed. [Research Briefings]researchbriefings.files.parliament.ukResearch BriefingsDisinformation: sources, spread and impactApril 26, 2024 — 25 Apr 2024 — Disinformation is the deliberate creation and…
The cost gap is not only about labour. It is also about attention. A myth can travel as a striking headline or emotional image, while a correction often has to ask for patience: “the source is unreliable”, “the number is being used without context”, “the image is real but from another year”, or “the claim combines a true detail with a false conclusion”. That explanation is more accurate, but it is less portable than the myth.
Research on corrections supports this distinction. Fact-checks can work, but their effects are usually strongest on the specific claim being corrected. A 2025 experiment comparing fact-checking with media literacy found that fact-checking mainly affected the particular fake news items it addressed, while media literacy helped participants distinguish between false and accurate information more generally, including after roughly two weeks. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.commisinformation, the fact-checking as such still requires human assessment. We show that in an environment where only a small proportion o…
That is why “more fact-checks” is a necessary but incomplete answer. If one misleading claim is corrected, the same story can reappear with a new example, a new screenshot, a new influencer or a slightly changed wording. The myth survives by mutating faster than the correction infrastructure can respond.
Why corrections do not fully reset belief
A common misunderstanding is that a fact-check simply replaces a false belief with a true one. In practice, correction is messier. People may accept that a specific claim was false while still retaining the general suspicion, emotional association or narrative frame that made the myth attractive in the first place.
Psychologists call one part of this the continued influence effect: misinformation can continue to shape memory and reasoning even after it has been corrected. A person may remember that a claim was disputed but still use parts of the original story when explaining what happened. Reviews of this evidence show that corrections often reduce misinformation effects, but they do not always eliminate them. [PMC]pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPMCCan you believe it?An investigation into the impact of… - PMCby UKH Ecker · 2021 · Cited by 212 — The continued influence effect refers to the finding th…
This is not simply because people are stubborn. Myths often provide a causal story. If a correction removes that story without offering a better explanation, the mind is left with a gap. For example, “this image is not from the current protest” is useful, but it may not answer the reader’s larger question about what actually happened at the protest. A stronger correction usually needs to do three things: identify the falsehood, explain why it seemed plausible, and give the reader a replacement account that fits the evidence.
There is also a trust problem. Fact-checking depends on the audience accepting the authority of the checker, the evidence and the institutions behind the evidence. In polarised settings, a correction from a distrusted outlet may be treated as part of the conflict rather than as a neutral repair. RAND’s work on “Truth Decay” identifies declining trust in institutions, disagreement over basic facts, blurred lines between opinion and fact, and changes in the information system as drivers of a wider environment in which factual correction has less power than it should. [RAND]rand.orgOpen source on rand.org.
This does not mean corrections backfire by default. The stronger current view is more balanced: good corrections usually help, but they are not magic erasers. They are one intervention in an information environment where memory, identity, trust and repetition all shape what people continue to believe.
Information access and literacy
Fact-checking is reactive: it answers a claim after someone has already encountered it. Information access and literacy are preventive: they make people less dependent on whoever reaches them first. This matters because many myths grow in information gaps. When trustworthy information is hard to find, slow to appear, written in inaccessible language or hidden behind institutional distrust, simpler misleading explanations fill the space.
Media and information literacy is not just a school subject or a slogan about “checking sources”. UNESCO frames it as a set of abilities that help people engage critically with information, navigate digital environments and build trust in the information ecosystem. Its work on media and information literacy links misinformation responses to wider public capacity: people need to understand how information is produced, how platforms shape visibility, how evidence differs from opinion, and how to recognise manipulation. [UNESCO]unesco.orgOpen source on unesco.org.
The strongest literacy approaches do not ask every person to become a full-time investigator. That would reproduce the same cost gap at the individual level. Instead, they teach practical habits that scale:
- Pause before sharing: emotional urgency is often part of the spread mechanism.
- Check the original source: screenshots, quote cards and viral clips often lose crucial context.
- Look for lateral confirmation: reliable claims usually do not depend on one isolated account.
- Notice manipulation tactics: scapegoating, false dilemmas, impersonation and exaggerated certainty can be warning signs even before every fact is checked.
- Use trusted reference points: public health agencies, official statistics bodies, specialist regulators and established newsrooms can reduce dependence on viral intermediaries.
Prebunking is one bridge between literacy and fact-checking. Instead of waiting for a false claim to spread, prebunking warns people in advance about common manipulation techniques. Research on inoculation-style interventions has found that teaching people to recognise misinformation tactics can build resistance across different claims, although the effect can vary by design, context and durability. [Misinformation Review]misinforeview.hks.harvard.eduMisinformation Review Prebunking interventions based on “inoculation” theory canMisinformation Review Prebunking interventions based on “inoculation” theory can [University of Bristol]research-information.bris.ac.ukFINAL Revision ERSP inoc paper 4Svd LFINAL Revision ERSP inoc paper 4Svd L
The policy value is clear: literacy and access do not replace fact-checking, but they reduce the number of myths that need claim-by-claim repair. A well-informed audience is harder to manipulate at scale.
Platform and policy support
Myths do not spread in a vacuum. They spread through systems that rank, recommend, monetise, moderate and archive content. A platform can make fact-checking more effective by reducing the reach of demonstrably false claims, adding context, improving provenance signals, giving researchers access to data and making reliable information easier to find. It can also make fact-checking less effective if engagement-driven design rewards outrage, speed and repetition more than accuracy.
The European Union’s Digital Services Act reflects this systemic view. It is not just a fact-checking law; it creates duties for online services, with the largest platforms and search engines subject to systemic-risk obligations. European Commission guidance describes the DSA as a framework for a safer and more trustworthy online environment, while DSA-related codes of conduct can address online issues such as illegal content and systemic risks through collaboration among stakeholders. [Digital Strategy]digital-strategy.ec.europa.euSource details in endnotes.
This matters because fact-checking alone leaves too many platform-level questions untouched. Who sees the correction? Is the original post still being recommended? Are repeat spreaders treated differently from ordinary users who made a mistake? Are political figures, influencers or paid advertisers exempt from the same standards as everyone else? Can independent researchers audit whether interventions actually reduce harm?
Recent platform changes show why governance matters. In January 2025, Meta announced that it would end its third-party fact-checking programme in the United States and move towards a Community Notes-style model; Associated Press later reported that Meta would begin testing this crowdsourced system in March 2025, while maintaining existing fact-checking outside the US at that stage. [Axios]axios.comMeta eliminating fact-checking to combat "censorshipMeta CEO Mark Zuckerberg outlined the changes, noting that fact-checking efforts had become politicized. Joel Kaplan, Meta's global affai…
Crowdsourced context can be useful, but it is not a complete substitute for professional verification. Community systems may be slower on obscure claims, vulnerable to coordinated disagreement, or weak in topics where expertise is needed. Professional fact-checking has its own problems too: it can be uneven across countries, languages and topics. Research on the “WEIRD governance” of fact-checking argues that platform moderation and fact-checking arrangements often work best for Western, educated, industrialised, rich and democratic contexts, while fact-checkers in other regions may have less leverage over global platforms. [City Research Online]openaccess.city.ac.ukCity Research Online The WEIRD Governance of Fact-Checking.pdfCity Research Online The WEIRD Governance of Fact-Checking.pdf
The governance point is therefore not “platforms should censor more”. It is that myth control requires accountable design choices. Fact-checking tells the public what is false; platform and policy support determine whether falsehood remains profitable, frictionless and algorithmically amplified.
Health myths show the limits most clearly
Health misinformation is one of the clearest examples of why fact-checking alone is insufficient. During a health crisis, people need timely, practical and trusted information. If official advice is slow, confusing or politically contested, myths can offer certainty: a miracle cure, a hidden cause, a villain, or a simple rule that feels easier than changing behaviour.
| The World Health Organization uses the term “infodemic” for too much information during a public health crisis, including false or misleading information in digital and physical environments. WHO’s Africa Infodemic Response Alliance describes its work as sharing safe, proven health facts and countering dangerous misinformation, which shows the broader model: monitoring, trusted messaging, partnerships and rapid response, not only after-the-fact debunking. [WHO]afro.who.intSource details in endnotes. | Regional Office for Africa |
A systematic review of health infodemics found that misinformation can affect willingness to vaccinate and other health behaviours. That is exactly where the correction cost gap becomes dangerous. A false health claim may be shared as personal testimony: “this worked for me” or “someone I know was harmed”. A fact-check may correctly explain that the evidence does not support the claim, but it still has to compete with fear, lived experience, mistrust and community pressure. [PMC]pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPMCCan you believe it?An investigation into the impact of… - PMCby UKH Ecker · 2021 · Cited by 212 — The continued influence effect refers to the finding th…
Better responses combine several layers: clear public guidance before rumours spread, trusted messengers in affected communities, rapid correction of harmful claims, platform action against repeated dangerous falsehoods, and long-term trust-building between institutions and the public. The myth is not only an information error; it is often a symptom of a trust gap.
What fact-checking is best at
Fact-checking remains one of the most important tools for limiting myths. It creates a public record, slows the spread of some false claims, gives journalists and educators reliable references, and helps readers who are actively trying to verify something. It also has democratic value: public figures, advertisers, influencers and institutions should be answerable when they make false or misleading claims.
The evidence does not support abandoning fact-checking. A global study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found that fact-checks reduced belief in misinformation across countries, and Africa Check’s summary of the study emphasised that reductions could persist for some time. [PNAS]pnas.orgPNASThe global effectiveness of fact-checking: Evidence from…by E Porter · 2021 · Cited by 344 — Meta-analysis demonstrates that fact…
But fact-checking is best understood as a precision tool, not a whole public information strategy. It is strongest when:
- the claim is specific enough to verify;
- the correction reaches the same audience as the myth;
- the fact-check appears quickly;
- the explanation replaces the false story with a clearer account;
- the source is trusted by the intended audience;
- platforms reduce the incentive to keep spreading the false version.
When those conditions are missing, even accurate fact-checks may have limited reach. They can become a library of corrections for people already looking for evidence, while the myth continues circulating in spaces where the correction is never seen or is dismissed as hostile.
What “not enough” should mean in practice
Saying that fact-checking is not enough should not become an excuse for doing less. It should mean building a layered response to myths and misconceptions.
A serious approach combines correction with prevention, access and governance. Fact-checkers identify and explain false claims. Educators and community organisations build the skills to recognise manipulation. Public institutions publish clear, timely and usable information. Platforms change incentives so misleading content is not automatically rewarded. Regulators require transparency, risk assessment and researcher access where platforms have public consequences. None of these measures is sufficient alone, but together they address the system that keeps myths alive.
The most useful test is simple: does the response only correct yesterday’s claim, or does it make tomorrow’s version harder to produce, spread and believe? Fact-checking answers the first challenge. Stopping myths requires the second as well.
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Calling Bullshit
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The Constitution of Knowledge
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Endnotes
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Source: pnas.org
Link: https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2104235118Source snippet
PNASThe global effectiveness of fact-checking: Evidence from...by E Porter · 2021 · Cited by 344 — Meta-analysis demonstrates that fact...
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Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Title: PMCCan you believe it?
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7810102/Source snippet
An investigation into the impact of... - PMCby UKH Ecker · 2021 · Cited by 212 — The continued influence effect refers to the finding th...
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Source: researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk
Link: https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/POST-PN-0719/POST-PN-0719.pdfSource snippet
Research BriefingsDisinformation: sources, spread and impactApril 26, 2024 — 25 Apr 2024 — Disinformation is the deliberate creation and...
Published: April 26, 2024
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Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004727272500043XSource snippet
misinformation, the fact-checking as such still requires human assessment. We show that in an environment where only a small proportion o...
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Source: rand.org
Link: https://www.rand.org/research/projects/truth-decay.html -
Source: rand.org
Link: https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2314.html -
Source: unesco.org
Link: https://www.unesco.org/en/media-information-literacy -
Source: unesco.org
Link: https://www.unesco.org/en/publication/action-plan-combatting-disinformation-and-misinformation-through-media-and-information-literacy-mil -
Source: axios.com
Title: Meta eliminating fact-checking to combat “censorship”
Link: https://www.axios.com/2025/01/07/meta-ends-fact-checking-zuckerberg-trumpSource snippet
Meta CEO Mark Zuckerberg outlined the changes, noting that fact-checking efforts had become politicized. Joel Kaplan, Meta's global affai...
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Source: afro.who.int
Link: https://www.afro.who.int/aira -
Source: who.int
Link: https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic -
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9421549/ -
Source: unesco.org
Link: https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/joint-initiative-ministry-information-and-unesco-strengthen-fact-checking-and-combat-misinformation -
Source: unesco.org
Link: https://www.unesco.org/en/world-media-trends/global-fact-checking-sites -
Source: unesco.org
Link: https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/media-and-information-literacy-first-line-defence-against-disinformation -
Source: rand.org
Link: https://www.rand.org/multimedia/video/2018/05/14/how-truth-decay-happens.html -
Source: rand.org
Link: https://www.rand.org/research/projects/truth-decay/research-and-commentary.html -
Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027725000307 -
Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/am/pii/S2352250X23002282 -
Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167811626000261 -
Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1071581926001126 -
Source: misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu
Title: Misinformation Review Prebunking interventions based on “inoculation” theory can
Link: https://misinforeview.hks.harvard.edu/article/global-vaccination-badnews/ -
Source: research-information.bris.ac.uk
Title: FINAL Revision ERSP inoc paper 4Svd L
Link: https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/files/263813879/FINAL_Revision_ERSP_inoc_paper_4SvdL.pdf -
Source: digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu
Link: https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/digital-services-act -
Source: digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu
Title: dsa codes conduct
Link: https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/dsa-codes-conduct -
Source: openaccess.city.ac.uk
Title: City Research Online The WEIRD Governance of Fact-Checking.pdf
Link: https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/31596/1/The%20WEIRD%20Governance%20of%20Fact-Checking.pdf -
Source: frontiersin.org
Link: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1487146/full -
Source: frontiersin.org
Link: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/communication/articles/10.3389/fcomm.2025.1560936/full
Additional References
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Source: youtube.com
Title: Myths That Sound True, Facts That Sound Impossible
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gHxhOzZv0gkSource snippet
These videos are relevant because they explore the psychological barriers to correcting misinformation, the phenomenon of the "continued...
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Source: nature.com
Link: https://www.nature.com/nature-index/topics/l4/fact-checking-practices-in-digital-media -
Source: youtube.com
Title: Fact checking, misinformation, wildfires, and institutional memory
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=akSotR_SnrYSource snippet
Myths That Sound True, Facts That Sound Impossible...
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Source: link.springer.com
Link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13421-023-01402-wSource snippet
SpringerThe impact of misinformation corrections on source perceptionsby V Westbrook · 2023 · Cited by 26 — Research on the continued inf...
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Source: researchgate.net
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258180567_Misinformation_and_Its_Correction_Continued_Influence_and_Successful_Debiasing -
Source: emc-lab.org
Link: https://www.emc-lab.org/uploads/1/1/3/6/113627673/butler.2025.nhb.pdf -
Source: apnews.com
Link: https://apnews.com/article/bb814cfc5e8d29a1ecc058f836de9580 -
Source: facebook.com
Link: https://www.facebook.com/whowpro/posts/dealing-with-mis-and-disinformation-check-out-the-who-policy-brief-on-managing-t/1153450925285875/ -
Source: opengovpartnership.org
Link: https://www.opengovpartnership.org/open-gov-guide/digital-governance-disinformation-and-information-integrity/ -
Source: medium.com
Link: https://medium.com/illumination/disinformation-do-you-have-truth-decay-172f682abdb5
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