Within Slogans
What should replace a false slogan?
A useful correction does more than say false; it gives people a better explanation they can remember and reuse.
On this page
- Why bare retractions leave a gap
- How factual alternatives preserve the real explanation
- Examples of compact corrections that stay accurate
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Introduction
A correction is most useful when it does more than reject a false slogan. People often remember misinformation because it helped explain an event, assign responsibility, or make sense of confusing facts. Simply announcing that a claim is false can remove the label of truth without removing the explanatory role the claim was performing. Research on the continued influence effect shows that misinformation can continue shaping reasoning even after people accept a correction, particularly when the correction leaves an unanswered question behind. [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPubMedMisinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and…by S Lewandowsky · 2012 · Cited by 4658 — We look at people's memory… [PMC]pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPMCExploring factors that mitigate the continued influencePMCby IP Kan · 2021 · Cited by 27 — The term “continued influence effect” (CIE) refers to the phenomenon that discredited and obsolete in…
This is why many misinformation researchers recommend turning corrections into replacement stories. Instead of creating a gap, the correction supplies a more accurate account of what happened, why the mistaken claim appeared convincing, and what evidence supports the alternative explanation. Studies and debunking guidance consistently find that corrections are stronger when they replace a false narrative with a coherent factual one. [Center for Climate Change Communication]climatechangecommunication.orgCenter for Climate Change Communication Debunking HandbookCenter for Climate Change CommunicationDebunking HandbookOctober 11, 2020 — Continued influence effect: The continued reliance on inaccur… [Skeptical Science]skepticalscience.comDebunking Handbook Part 5 Filling gap with alternative explanationThe Debunking Handbook Part 5: Filling the gap with an…25 Nov 2011 — The most effective way to reduce the effect of misinformation is…
Why bare retractions leave a gap
A slogan is often remembered because it functions as a shortcut explanation. It may be wrong, but it answers a question. If people hear that a warehouse fire was caused by stored chemicals, that claim immediately links cause and effect. When later told that the chemicals were not present, the correction removes the explanation but does not automatically provide a new one.
This problem appears repeatedly in research on misinformation. People can accurately recall that information was retracted and still rely on it when making inferences. The issue is not necessarily memory failure. In many cases, the original claim remains useful because it still offers the only available account of what happened. PubMed [nature]nature.comNatureThe psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its…by UKH Ecker · 2022 · Cited by 1916 — In this Review, we describe the… The classic warehouse-fire studies illustrate the point. Participants continued referring to supposedly withdrawn information about flammable materials when explaining the fire. However, reliance on the misinformation decreased when researchers supplied an alternative cause that could perform the same explanatory function. [Shaping Tomorrows World]shapingtomorrowsworld.orgShaping Tomorrows WorldThe Debunking Handbook Part 5: Filling the gap with an…by S Lewandowsky — The most effective way to reduce the… [SciSpace For communicators]scispace.comThe continued influence of misinformation in memoryThat is, the effect is not due to just any misinformation, nor to the absence of a cau…, this means that a correction which merely says “false” often asks the audience to live with uncertainty. Many people will instead return to the old story because it remains the most complete explanation available.
What makes a replacement story work?
A replacement story does not need to be dramatic or elaborate. It needs to answer the questions that made the myth attractive in the first place.
Effective replacement explanations typically contain three elements:
- The factual account – what actually happened.
- The mechanism – how the event unfolded or why the evidence points in that direction.
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- The explanation for the error – why the false claim appeared, spread, or seemed plausible. [University of Bristol]research-information.bris.ac.ukUniversity of BristolEcker, UKH, Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio…First, the most important element of a debunking correc… [Center for Climate Change Communication]climatechangecommunication.orgCenter for Climate Change Communication Debunking HandbookCenter for Climate Change CommunicationDebunking HandbookOctober 11, 2020 — Continued influence effect: The continued reliance on inaccur…
Consider the difference between these two corrections:
- “The claim is false.”
- “The claim is false. The image comes from a flood that occurred three years earlier, and it was recirculated with a misleading caption after the recent storm.”
The second version gives readers a usable account. It explains both reality and the source of the confusion.
Research summarised in the Debunking Handbook identifies alternative explanations as one of the most effective ways to reduce misinformation’s continued influence because they help people update their mental model rather than simply delete information. [Center for Climate Change Communication]climatechangecommunication.orgCenter for Climate Change Communication Debunking HandbookCenter for Climate Change CommunicationDebunking HandbookOctober 11, 2020 — Continued influence effect: The continued reliance on inaccur… [Center for Climate Change Communication]climatechangecommunication.orgCenter for Climate Change Communication Debunking HandbookCenter for Climate Change CommunicationDebunking HandbookOctober 11, 2020 — Continued influence effect: The continued reliance on inaccur…
How factual alternatives preserve the real explanation
The goal is not to invent a competing slogan. It is to preserve the causal structure of the truth.
A weak correction often removes a false cause without replacing it:
- Myth: “The outage happened because hackers shut down the system.”
- Correction: “There is no evidence hackers were involved.”
A stronger correction preserves explanation:
- Myth: “The outage happened because hackers shut down the system.”
- Replacement story: “Investigators found no evidence of hacking. The outage occurred after a software update created a configuration failure that disrupted service across multiple servers.”
The second correction gives readers a complete model they can recall later.
This principle matters because people naturally organise information into narratives. Research on the continued influence effect suggests that misinformation often persists when it becomes embedded in a causal model of events. Corrections are more successful when they update that model rather than simply removing one piece of it. [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPubMedMisinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and…by S Lewandowsky · 2012 · Cited by 4658 — We look at people's memory… [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsMisinformation and Its Correctionby S Lewandowsky · 2012 · Cited by 4673 — Sources of the continued influence effect: When m…
A useful test is simple: after reading the correction, could a person answer “What happened instead?” If not, the correction may still leave room for the myth.
Examples of compact corrections that stay accurate
Replacement stories do not need to be lengthy. In fact, they often work best when they remain concise while preserving the key explanation.
Public health rumour
Weak correction
“Vaccines do not contain tracking devices.”
Replacement story
“Vaccines contain ingredients designed to create an immune response. The claim about tracking devices arose from online rumours, but no approved vaccine contains technology capable of monitoring people’s movements.”
The second version provides both the true purpose of the vaccine and an explanation of the false claim.
Misleading photograph
Weak correction
“This image is fake.”
Replacement story
“This image is real, but it was taken during a different event several years earlier. The misleading caption falsely connected it to the current incident.”
The explanation reveals the mechanism that created the misunderstanding.
Economic myth
Weak correction
“The statistic is wrong.”
Replacement story
“The statistic combines data from different years. Using the full dataset shows that prices increased more slowly than the viral claim suggests.”
Again, the reader receives a replacement account rather than a rejection.
Avoid turning the correction into a second slogan
There is a temptation to answer every myth with an equally short counter-slogan. Sometimes a brief statement is appropriate, but a correction can become fragile if it strips away the explanation that makes it meaningful.
Research on misinformation repeatedly shows that familiarity and repetition influence belief. A correction that focuses entirely on repeating the myth may accidentally reinforce it, while a correction that centres the factual account gives readers a different memory to retrieve later. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comScienceDirectA replication study of Johnson and Seifert's (1994)…by V Laurent · 2023 · Cited by 5 — The term “Continued Influence Effe…
The challenge is therefore not choosing between simplicity and accuracy. It is finding the simplest explanation that still captures the essential truth.
A useful replacement story should be memorable enough to repeat, accurate enough to survive scrutiny, and complete enough to answer the question that the myth appeared to solve.
The practical rule for communicators
When writing a correction, imagine that the audience will encounter the myth again next week. A bare retraction leaves them with two memories: the myth and the fact that someone disputed it. A replacement story leaves them with a third memory: an explanation of what really happened.
The most effective correction therefore follows a simple sequence:
- State the factual conclusion.
- Briefly identify the false claim.
- Explain why the claim is wrong.
- Provide a clear alternative account. [research-information.bris.ac.uk]research-information.bris.ac.ukUniversity of BristolEcker, UKH, Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio…First, the most important element of a debunking correc…
- Return to the factual explanation.
This approach aligns with decades of research showing that misinformation is hardest to remove when it continues doing explanatory work. A correction succeeds when the truth becomes more useful than the myth. [University of Bristol]research-information.bris.ac.ukUniversity of BristolEcker, UKH, Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio…First, the most important element of a debunking correc… [Center for Climate Change Communication]climatechangecommunication.orgCenter for Climate Change Communication Debunking HandbookCenter for Climate Change CommunicationDebunking HandbookOctober 11, 2020 — Continued influence effect: The continued reliance on inaccur… [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPubMedMisinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and…by S Lewandowsky · 2012 · Cited by 4658 — We look at people's memory…
Endnotes
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Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Title: PMCExploring factors that mitigate the continued influence
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8627545/Source snippet
PMCby IP Kan · 2021 · Cited by 27 — The term “continued influence effect” (CIE) refers to the phenomenon that discredited and obsolete in...
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Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Title: PMCCorrection format has a limited role when debunking
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8715407/Source snippet
PMCby B Swire-Thompson · 2021 · Cited by 79 — Misinformation can continue to influence an individual's memory and reasoning even after a...
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Source: nature.com
Link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s44159-021-00006-ySource snippet
NatureThe psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its...by UKH Ecker · 2022 · Cited by 1916 — In this Review, we describe the...
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Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Title: PMCThe role of discomfort in the continued influence effect
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8447889/Source snippet
PMCby MW Susmann · 2021 · Cited by 90 — Research examining the continued influence effect (CIE) of misinformation has reliably found that...
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Source: scispace.com
Link: https://scispace.com/pdf/the-continued-influence-of-misinformation-in-memory-what-4tijzg1jh2.pdfSource snippet
The continued influence of misinformation in memoryThat is, the effect is not due to just any misinformation, nor to the absence of a cau...
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Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001691823002706Source snippet
ScienceDirectA replication study of Johnson and Seifert's (1994)...by V Laurent · 2023 · Cited by 5 — The term “Continued Influence Effe...
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Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2211368116301838Source snippet
ScienceDirectReminders and Repetition of Misinformationby UKH Ecker · 2017 · Cited by 392 — People frequently rely on information even af...
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Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027725000307Source snippet
Belief updating in the face of misinformation: The role...by GA Sanna · 2025 · Cited by 14 — This paper investigates the process of beli...
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Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027720302729Source snippet
The rational continued influence of misinformationby SAC Desai · 2020 · Cited by 71 — Studies on the 'Continued Influence Effect' (CIE) s...
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Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26173286/Source snippet
PubMedMisinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and...by S Lewandowsky · 2012 · Cited by 4658 — We look at people's memory...
-
Source: climatechangecommunication.org
Title: Center for Climate Change Communication Debunking Handbook
Link: https://www.climatechangecommunication.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/DebunkingHandbook2020.pdfSource snippet
Center for Climate Change CommunicationDebunking HandbookOctober 11, 2020 — Continued influence effect: The continued reliance on inaccur...
Published: October 11, 2020
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Source: skepticalscience.com
Title: Debunking Handbook Part 5 Filling gap with alternative explanation
Link: https://skepticalscience.com/Debunking-Handbook-Part-5-Filling-gap-with-alternative-explanation.htmlSource snippet
The Debunking Handbook Part 5: Filling the gap with an...25 Nov 2011 — The most effective way to reduce the effect of misinformation is...
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Source: research-information.bris.ac.uk
Link: https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/files/298563464/Ecker_v4_TSshorten_UE_clean.pdfSource snippet
University of BristolEcker, UKH, Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio...First, the most important element of a debunking correc...
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Source: shapingtomorrowsworld.org
Link: https://www.shapingtomorrowsworld.org/debunking-handbook-part-5-filling-gap-with-alternative-explanation.html -
Source: climatecommunication.gmu.edu
Title: the debunking handbook 2020
Link: https://climatecommunication.gmu.edu/all/the-debunking-handbook-2020/Source snippet
Center for Climate Change CommunicationThe Debunking Handbook 2020Sep 13, 2023 — The Debunking Handbook 2020 summarizes the current state...
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Source: journals.sagepub.com
Link: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1529100612451018Source snippet
Sage JournalsMisinformation and Its Correctionby S Lewandowsky · 2012 · Cited by 4673 — Sources of the continued influence effect: When m...
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Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36988856/Source snippet
impact of misinformation corrections on source...by V Westbrook · 2023 · Cited by 26 — Research on the continued influence effect (CIE)...
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Source: skepticalscience.com
Title: debunking handbook 2020 references
Link: https://skepticalscience.com/debunking-handbook-2020-references.htmlSource snippet
The Debunking Handbook 2020: References26 Oct 2020 — A meta-analytic examination of the continued influence of misinformation in the face...
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Source: cogbias.site
Title: Continued influence effect
Link: https://cogbias.site/biases/continued-influence-effect/Source snippet
A correction can remove a claim without removing the explanatory work the claim was doing.Read more...
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Source: ltrr.arizona.edu
Title: Debunking Handbook
Link: https://www.ltrr.arizona.edu/~katie/kt/natsgc/Debunking_Handbook.pdfSource snippet
by S Lewandowsky — Sources of the continued influence effect: When discredited information in memory affects later inferences. Journal of...
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Source: shapingtomorrowsworld.org
Title: debunking handbook part 2 familiarity [backfire]({{ ‘backfire/’ | relative_url }}) effect
Link: https://www.shapingtomorrowsworld.org/debunking-handbook-part-2-familiarity-backfire-effect.htmlSource snippet
The Debunking Handbook Part 2: The Familiarity Backfire Effect18 Nov 2011 — This Handbook boils down the research into a short, simple su...
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Source: youtube.com
Title: The Continued Influence Effect
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eZ_hcf01EFwSource snippet
Why do memories of...The continued influence effect is when misinformation continues to exist in a person's memory even after they've le...
Additional References
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Source: inoculation.science
Link: https://inoculation.science/the-debunking-handbook/Source snippet
The Debunking HandbookMisinformation is false information that is spread either by mistake or with intent to mislead. When there is inten...
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Source: brod.ntcenter.bg
Link: https://brod.ntcenter.bg/en/continued-influence-effect/Source snippet
Influence EffectThe "Continued Influence Effect" refers to the phenomenon where misinformation continues to affect people's thinking and...
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Source: research-information.bris.ac.uk
Title: misinformation and its correction continued influence and success
Link: https://research-information.bris.ac.uk/en/publications/misinformation-and-its-correction-continued-influence-and-success/Source snippet
and Its Correction: Continued Influence and...by S Lewandowsky · 2012 · Cited by 4713 — We look at people's memory for misinformation an...
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Source: education.umd.edu
Title: 10 14 20 debunking handbook 2020 countering misinformation
Link: https://education.umd.edu/news/10-14-20-debunking-handbook-2020-countering-misinformationSource snippet
Handbook 2020: Countering MisinformationOct 14, 2020 — There is little doubt that misinformation and “[fake news]({{ 'fake-news/' | relative_url }})” are currently underminin...
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Source: ofcom.org.uk
Title: misinformation and disinformation literature review
Link: https://www.ofcom.org.uk/siteassets/resources/documents/research-and-data/media-literacy-research/mis-and-disinformation/misinformation-and-disinformation-literature-review.pdf?v=397787Source snippet
Misinformation and Disinformation: Literature Review27 May 2025 — This briefing provides an overview of the available academic and grey l...
Published: May 2025
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Source: researchgate.net
Link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258180567_Misinformation_and_Its_Correction_Continued_Influence_and_Successful_DebiasingSource snippet
These recommendations pertain to the ways in which corrections should be...
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Source: researchportalplus.anu.edu.au
Title: Original language, English. Article
Link: https://researchportalplus.anu.edu.au/en/publications/causal-inference-in-misinformation-and-conspiracy-research/Source snippet
inference in misinformation and conspiracy researchby LQ Tay · 2024 · Cited by 1 — Keywords: causal inference, conspiracy theory, fake ne...
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Source: researchgate.net
Link: [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391015007To_be_continued_misinformation%27s_bizarre_adventure_beyond_memory_failures-exploring_non-memory-based_mechanisms_driving_the_continued_influence_effect_CIE](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391015007_To_be_continued_misinformation%27s_bizarre_adventure_beyond_memory_failures-_exploring_non-memory-based_mechanisms_driving_the_continued_influence_effect_CIE)Source snippet
(PDF) To be continued: misinformation's bizarre adventure...18 Nov 2025 — The psychology of fake news: Accepting, sharing, and correctin...
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Source: cambridge.org
Link: https://www.cambridge.org/core/elements/persistence-of-misinformation/1C45DB820E289194235818E12A202255Source snippet
Persistence of Misinformationby Y Zhou · 2025 · Cited by 1 — A meta-analytic examination of the continued influence of misinformation in...
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Source: youtube.com
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wVXYf3Gr_BESource snippet
f an article its intent or whether it's been fact checked or not...
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