Within False Info
Why corrections need a better story
Corrections are more persuasive when they explain what really happened instead of only saying a claim is false.
On this page
- The gap left by a false claim
- What a replacement explanation does
- Examples from rumours and emergencies
Page outline Jump by section
Introduction
Simply telling people that a claim is false is often not enough to stop it influencing what they believe, remember or repeat. Research on misinformation repeatedly finds that corrections work better when they replace a false explanation with a credible account of what actually happened. Without that replacement, people can continue relying on the original claim because it still provides the most complete story available to them. This pattern appears in laboratory studies, public-health communication, crisis reporting and everyday rumours. Psychologists call this the “continued influence effect”: misinformation can keep shaping reasoning even after people accept that it was wrong. [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPubMedMisinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and…by S Lewandowsky · 2012 · Cited by 4641 — We first examine the mechan… [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsA Meta-Analytic Examination of the Continued Influence…Jun 22, 2019 — A meta-analysis was conducted to examine the extent…
This matters because many myths and misconceptions are not just isolated false statements. They are explanations. A rumour explains why an event occurred. A conspiracy theory explains who is supposedly responsible. A false health claim explains an illness or treatment outcome. Effective corrections therefore need to do more than remove bad information. They need to give people a better story to think with.
The gap left by a false claim
One of the most important findings in misinformation research is that people build mental models of events. When they hear a claim, they often fit it into a larger narrative that helps them make sense of what happened. If that claim is later retracted, the narrative can break apart. [ScienceDirect]sciencedirect.comIn a dynamic world, information in memory is frequently outdated, corrected, or replaced.Read more…
Researchers have found that people frequently continue using false information in later reasoning even when they remember and accept the correction. In other words, the problem is not always that people reject the correction. Sometimes they accept it but still rely on the outdated explanation because it remains the only coherent account available. [Cambridge University Press & Assessment]cambridge.orgCambridge University Press & AssessmentMisinformation and Its Correction (Chapter 8)24 Aug 2020 — From this perspective, corrections can… [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPubMedMisinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and…by S Lewandowsky · 2012 · Cited by 4641 — We first examine the mechan…
A classic example used in misinformation research involves reports about a warehouse fire. Participants were initially told that flammable materials such as paint and gas cylinders had been stored in a cupboard. Later, they learned this information was incorrect. Yet many people continued citing those materials as an explanation for the fire when answering questions afterwards. The false explanation remained influential because it helped explain the event. [Skeptical Science]skepticalscience.comDebunking Handbook Part 5 Filling gap with alternative explanationSkeptical ScienceThe Debunking Handbook Part 5: Filling the gap with an…25 Nov 2011 — The most effective way to reduce the effect of m…
This helps explain why bare fact-checks often disappoint communicators. A correction such as “this is false” removes information but may not replace the causal link that made the claim memorable in the first place.
Why the mind resists empty corrections
Several explanations have been proposed for this persistence.
- People prefer coherent stories over fragmented information.
- Initial explanations become integrated into memory and reasoning.
- Corrections often arrive later than the original claim and receive less attention.
- Removing a claim can leave unanswered questions about cause, responsibility or sequence. [Nature]nature.comNatureThe psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its…by UKH Ecker · 2022 · Cited by 1748 — Moreover, the term disinformati… ScienceDirect The result is that a correction can create an informational vacuum. Humans are generally uncomfortable with unexplained events [sciencedirect.com]sciencedirect.comIn a dynamic world, information in memory is frequently outdated, corrected, or replaced.Read more…, especially during uncertainty or crisis. If no replacement account is available, the original explanation can continue to feel useful even after it has been discredited.
What a replacement explanation does
A replacement explanation gives people another way to understand the event. Instead of merely denying a false claim, it provides a plausible alternative that restores coherence.
The evidence for this approach appears throughout the debunking literature. Researchers Stephan Lewandowsky, Ullrich Ecker and colleagues have repeatedly argued that effective corrections should offer an alternative causal account to fill the gap left by misinformation. The widely used Debunking Handbook presents this as a central principle of successful debunking. [digitalcommons.unl.edu]digitalcommons.unl.eduFor example, people may report the correction accurately and…Read more… [2ltrr.arizona.edu]ltrr.arizona.eduThe Debunking Handbookby S Lewandowsky — Replace with alternative narrative5. Page 8. Anatomy of an effective debunking. Bringing all the different threads together, an effective debunking requires:.Read more…
In the warehouse-fire experiments, corrections became more effective when participants received an alternative explanation for the fire rather than only a retraction. When another cause was supplied, reliance on the original misinformation decreased substantially. [Skeptical Science]skepticalscience.comDebunking Handbook Part 5 Filling gap with alternative explanationSkeptical ScienceThe Debunking Handbook Part 5: Filling the gap with an…25 Nov 2011 — The most effective way to reduce the effect of m…
The replacement explanation does not need to be elaborate. What matters is that it answers the question left behind by the correction.
For example:
Weak correctionStronger correction“The road was not closed because of a violent incident.”“The road was closed because emergency crews were repairing a damaged gas main.”“The hospital was not overwhelmed by vaccine injuries.”“The hospital reported a temporary surge caused by a seasonal respiratory outbreak.”“The suspect named online was not involved.”“Police identified the individual as an unrelated member of the public who had been misidentified.”
In each case, the stronger version does more than negate the rumour. It supplies a replacement account that makes the situation understandable.
Replacement is not the same as speculation
A replacement explanation must still be evidence-based.
During breaking news events, communicators sometimes face pressure to provide a complete story before the facts are known. Research does not suggest inventing explanations merely to compete with rumours. Instead, it suggests explaining what is known, what is uncertain and what evidence currently points toward. [Center for Climate Change Communication]climatechangecommunication.orgCenter for Climate Change CommunicationDebunking HandbookOctober 11, 2020 — Fact-checking and corrections appear to “work” when you ask p…
An honest update such as “investigators have ruled out a gas leak and are examining electrical equipment” can be more useful than a simple denial because it gives people a framework for understanding the developing situation.
Why rumours survive after being debunked
Rumours often spread because they answer unanswered questions. This is particularly visible during emergencies, disasters and public-health scares.
In uncertain situations, people seek explanations quickly. A dramatic rumour may provide a simple cause, a villain or a clear chain of events. Even if that explanation later proves false, it can remain psychologically attractive because it reduced uncertainty when little information was available. [First Draft]firstdraftnews.orgFirst DraftThe psychology of misinformation: Why it's so hard to correctJuly 14, 2020 — 14 Jul 2020 — The continued influence effect is w…
Researchers studying the continued influence effect have found that corrections generally reduce belief in misinformation but rarely eliminate its influence entirely. A large meta-analysis covering dozens of studies found that corrections help, yet misinformation often continues affecting judgement afterwards. [Sage Journals]journals.sagepub.comSage JournalsA Meta-Analytic Examination of the Continued Influence…Jun 22, 2019 — A meta-analysis was conducted to examine the extent…
This helps explain familiar public reactions:
- People repeat corrected rumours months later.
- Debunked claims continue appearing in discussions.
- Individuals cite false causes while acknowledging they were supposedly disproven.
- Conspiracy theories survive repeated fact-checking efforts.
The issue is often not simple ignorance. The false explanation remains embedded within a broader story about how events supposedly unfolded.
Examples from rumours and emergencies
Public-health myths
Health misinformation frequently succeeds because it offers straightforward explanations for frightening events.
A false claim about a vaccine side effect may provide a clear reason for an illness, while the real medical explanation involves probabilities, multiple contributing factors and uncertainty. If a correction merely says the claim is wrong, people may still rely on the original story because it remains easier to picture. Researchers reviewing misinformation and vaccine myths have highlighted how corrective efforts need to supply understandable alternative explanations rather than only rejecting false claims. [PubMed]pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPubMedMisinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and…by S Lewandowsky · 2012 · Cited by 4641 — We first examine the mechan…
A stronger correction might explain what doctors found, how the illness is normally caused and why investigators concluded the vaccine was not responsible.
Misidentification during breaking news
After terrorist attacks, mass-casualty events or criminal investigations, social media users sometimes identify the wrong person as a suspect.
A correction that simply states “the person circulating online is innocent” may leave an obvious question unanswered: who was actually involved?
Journalists and emergency agencies increasingly try to pair corrections with verified information about how the mistake happened, where the image originated and what investigators currently know. This approach helps replace the false narrative rather than leaving an informational void.
Disaster and infrastructure rumours
Rumours often emerge around power outages, transport disruptions and evacuations.
If residents are told only that a circulating claim is false, they may continue relying on it because it remains the most complete explanation available. When authorities explain the actual cause—equipment failure, weather damage, safety inspections or maintenance work—misinformation loses part of its narrative advantage.
What the evidence says about effective corrections
Research does not show that replacement explanations solve every problem. People may still cling to misinformation because of political identity, group loyalty, distrust of institutions or repeated exposure. Corrections can reduce misinformation’s influence without removing it entirely. Cambridge University Press & Assessment [PMC]pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.govPMCCorrection format has a limited role when debunkingPMCby B Swire-Thompson · 2021 · Cited by 79 — Abstract. Given that being misinformed can have negative ramifications, finding optimal cor…
Even so, several findings appear consistently across the literature:
- Corrections generally work better than leaving misinformation unchallenged. [Brown Climate Social Science Network]cssn.orgDB2020paper 1Fact-checking and corrections work, at least in part and in many situations, but this does not mean fact-checking can eliminate all inacc…
- Misinformation often continues influencing reasoning after correction. PubMed [First Draft]firstdraftnews.orgFirst DraftThe psychology of misinformation: Why it's so hard to correctJuly 14, 2020 — 14 Jul 2020 — The continued influence effect is w…
- Providing an alternative explanation can reduce this continued influence. [Skeptical Science]skepticalscience.comDebunking Handbook Part 5 Filling gap with alternative explanationSkeptical ScienceThe Debunking Handbook Part 5: Filling the gap with an…25 Nov 2011 — The most effective way to reduce the effect of m… [Association for Psychological Science]psychologicalscience.orgAssociation for Psychological ScienceMisinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and…Sep 18, 2012 — When correcting misinfo…
- People are more likely to update their understanding when the correction helps them maintain a coherent account of events. ScienceDirect [2repository.law.indiana.edu]repository.law.indiana.eduMisinformation and the Juryby G Ribeiro · 2026 — A prominent explanation for the continued influence effect suggests that people are incl…
Some newer studies have also explored whether explaining the origins of misinformation—such as showing how a reporting error occurred or how a rumour started—can further improve corrections. Results suggest that understanding where the misinformation came from may sometimes help people revise beliefs, although the effects appear more limited and context-dependent than simply providing a strong alternative explanation. [City Research Online]openaccess.city.ac.ukCity Research OnlineDoes explaining the origins of misinformation improve the…September 14, 2022 — by S Connor Desai · 2023 · Cited by…
Better fixes instead of simple denials
The practical lesson is straightforward: myths and misconceptions survive partly because they explain things. A correction that removes the myth without replacing its explanatory role leaves people with unanswered questions.
Effective debunking therefore tends to follow a simple sequence:
- State that the claim is inaccurate.
- Provide the correct information.
- Explain what actually happened.
- Show how the misunderstanding arose when relevant.
Amazon book picks
Further Reading
Books and field guides related to Why corrections need a better story. Use these as the next step if you want deeper reading beyond the article.
The Constitution of Knowledge
Explains how better explanations replace bad information.
eBay marketplace picks
Marketplace Samples
Example marketplace items related to this page. Use the search link to explore similar finds on eBay.
- Keep the replacement account clear, coherent and evidence-based. [digitalcommons.unl.edu]digitalcommons.unl.eduFor example, people may report the correction accurately and…Read more… [2ltrr.arizona.edu]ltrr.arizona.eduThe Debunking Handbookby S Lewandowsky — Replace with alternative narrative5. Page 8. Anatomy of an effective debunking. Bringing all the different threads together, an effective debunking requires:.Read more…
When a correction supplies a credible alternative story, it does more than contradict a rumour. It gives people a new explanation to remember, repeat and use in place of the old one. That is why some corrections stick while others leave the original myth surprisingly intact.
Endnotes
-
Source: cambridge.org
Link: https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/social-media-and-democracy/misinformation-and-its-correction/61FA7FD743784A723BA234533012E810Source snippet
Cambridge University Press & AssessmentMisinformation and Its Correction (Chapter 8)24 Aug 2020 — From this perspective, corrections can...
-
Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/chapter/bookseries/abs/pii/S0079742102800093Source snippet
In a dynamic world, information in memory is frequently outdated, corrected, or replaced.Read more...
-
Source: nature.com
Link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s44159-021-00006-ySource snippet
NatureThe psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its...by UKH Ecker · 2022 · Cited by 1748 — Moreover, the term disinformati...
-
Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027720302729Source snippet
ScienceDirectThe rational continued influence of misinformationby SAC Desai · 2020 · Cited by 71 — Studies on the 'Continued Influence Ef...
-
Source: repository.law.indiana.edu
Link: https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=11597&context=iljSource snippet
Misinformation and the Juryby G Ribeiro · 2026 — A prominent explanation for the continued influence effect suggests that people are incl...
-
Source: digitalcommons.unl.edu
Link: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/context/scholcom/article/1247/viewcontent/DebunkingHandbook2020.pdfSource snippet
For example, people may report the correction accurately and...Read more...
-
Source: ltrr.arizona.edu
Title: The Debunking Handbookby S Lewandowsky — Replace with alternative narrative
Link: https://www.ltrr.arizona.edu/~katie/kt/natsgc/Debunking_Handbook.pdfSource snippet
5. Page 8. Anatomy of an effective debunking. Bringing all the different threads together, an effective debunking requires:.Read more...
-
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Title: PMCCorrection format has a limited role when debunking
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8715407/Source snippet
PMCby B Swire-Thompson · 2021 · Cited by 79 — Abstract. Given that being misinformed can have negative ramifications, finding optimal cor...
-
Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2211368116301838Source snippet
Reminders and [Repetition]({{ 'repetition/' | relative_url }}) of Misinformationby UKH Ecker · 2017 · Cited by 397 — People frequently rely on information even after it has be...
-
Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001691823002706Source snippet
A replication study of Johnson and Seifert's (1994)...by V Laurent · 2023 · Cited by 5 — The term “Continued Influence Effect” (CIE) (Jo...
-
Source: sciencedirect.com
Link: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004727272500043XSource snippet
Debunking “fake news” on social media: Immediate and...by LM Berger · 2025 · Cited by 21 — We conduct a randomized survey experiment to...
-
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26173286/Source snippet
PubMedMisinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and...by S Lewandowsky · 2012 · Cited by 4641 — We first examine the mechan...
-
Source: journals.sagepub.com
Link: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0093650219854600Source snippet
Sage JournalsA Meta-Analytic Examination of the Continued Influence...Jun 22, 2019 — A meta-analysis was conducted to examine the extent...
-
Source: skepticalscience.com
Title: Debunking Handbook Part 5 Filling gap with alternative explanation
Link: https://skepticalscience.com/Debunking-Handbook-Part-5-Filling-gap-with-alternative-explanation.htmlSource snippet
Skeptical ScienceThe Debunking Handbook Part 5: Filling the gap with an...25 Nov 2011 — The most effective way to reduce the effect of m...
-
Source: cssn.org
Title: DB2020paper 1
Link: https://cssn.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/DB2020paper-1.pdfSource snippet
Fact-checking and corrections work, at least in part and in many situations, but this does not mean fact-checking can eliminate all inacc...
-
Source: climatechangecommunication.org
Link: https://www.climatechangecommunication.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/DebunkingHandbook2020.pdfSource snippet
Center for Climate Change CommunicationDebunking HandbookOctober 11, 2020 — Fact-checking and corrections appear to “work” when you ask p...
Published: October 11, 2020
-
Source: bristol.ac.uk
Title: debunking handbook
Link: https://www.bristol.ac.uk/news/2020/october/debunking-handbook-.htmlSource snippet
University of BristolOctober: Debunking Handbook | News and features14 Oct 2020 — The Debunking Handbook 2020 has been made freely availa...
-
Source: firstdraftnews.org
Link: https://firstdraftnews.org/articles/the-psychology-of-misinformation-why-its-so-hard-to-correct/Source snippet
First DraftThe psychology of misinformation: Why it's so hard to correctJuly 14, 2020 — 14 Jul 2020 — The continued influence effect is w...
Published: July 14, 2020
-
Source: psychologicalscience.org
Link: https://www.psychologicalscience.org/publications/journals/pspi/misinformation1.htmlSource snippet
Association for Psychological ScienceMisinformation and Its Correction: Continued Influence and...Sep 18, 2012 — When correcting misinfo...
-
Source: journals.sagepub.com
Link: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/17470218251336232Source snippet
Sage JournalsDo the protective effects last? The...Apr 9, 2025 — The continued influence effect (CIE) refers to continued reliance on mi...
-
Source: openaccess.city.ac.uk
Link: https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/28822/1/ConnorDesai%26Reimers2022.pdfSource snippet
City Research OnlineDoes explaining the origins of misinformation improve the...September 14, 2022 — by S Connor Desai · 2023 · Cited by...
Published: September 14, 2022
-
Source: openaccess.city.ac.uk
Link: https://openaccess.city.ac.uk/28822/1/ConnorDesai%26Reimers2022.pdfSource snippet
Misinformation often has a continuing influence on event-related reasoning even when it is clearly and credibly corrected;.Read more...
-
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40086022/Source snippet
an alternative explanation improves...by S Guo · Cited by 3 — The continued influence effect of misinformation (CIE) occurs when misinfo...
-
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36988856/Source snippet
impact of misinformation corrections on source...by V Westbrook · 2023 · Cited by 25 — Research on the continued influence effect (CIE)...
-
Source: anecdotal.app
Link: https://anecdotal.app/bias/continued-influence-effect/Source snippet
Continued influence effect | ANECDOTALThe misinformation effect is about contamination: post-event information blends into the original m...
-
Source: etd.ohiolink.edu
Link: https://etd.ohiolink.edu/acprod/odb_etd/ws/send_file/send?accession=osu1638809124303347&disposition=inlineSource snippet
ohiolink.edu1 Mechanisms in Continued Influence of Misinformationby VL Westbrook · 2022 · Cited by 1 — Research on the CIE has shown that...
Additional References
-
Source: scispace.com
Link: https://scispace.com/pdf/the-continued-influence-of-misinformation-in-memory-what-4tijzg1jh2.pdfSource snippet
The continued influence of misinformation in memoryIn the next sections, we consider several alternative explanations for the continued i...
-
Source: researchgate.net
Link: [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391015007To_be_continued_misinformation%27s_bizarre_adventure_beyond_memory_failures-exploring_non-memory-based_mechanisms_driving_the_continued_influence_effect_CIE](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/391015007_To_be_continued_misinformation%27s_bizarre_adventure_beyond_memory_failures-_exploring_non-memory-based_mechanisms_driving_the_continued_influence_effect_CIE)Source snippet
(PDF) To be continued: misinformation's bizarre adventure...18 Nov 2025 — The Continued Influence Effect (CIE) refers to the persistent...
-
Source: education.umd.edu
Title: 10 14 20 debunking handbook 2020 countering misinformation
Link: https://education.umd.edu/news/10-14-20-debunking-handbook-2020-countering-misinformationSource snippet
Handbook 2020: Countering Misinformation14 Oct 2020 — The Debunking Handbook 2020 aims to do just that by summarizing the current state o...
-
Source: escholarship.org
Title: But where’s the evidence?
Link: https://escholarship.org/content/qt90q1k1r7/qt90q1k1r7_noSplash_89e39d5052c4fb3421a8456938be2e80.pdf?t=sgijj7Source snippet
The effect of explanatory...Research on the continued influence effect has consistently shown that people continue to rely on false caus...
-
Source: shapingtomorrowsworld.org
Link: https://www.shapingtomorrowsworld.org/debunking-handbook-part-1-first-myth-about-debunking.htmlSource snippet
The Debunking Handbook Part 1: The first myth about...by S Lewandowsky · Cited by 1 — The Debunking Handbook is an upcoming guide to deb...
-
Source: youtube.com
Title: How to effectively correct misinformation: A guide for communicators
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d_Z_vK7W_gYSource snippet
Why facts don't change our minds: The role of narratives in corrections...
-
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11076432/Source snippet
and belief updating following complete and partial...by PL Kemp · 2024 · Cited by 9 — Accordingly, repeating misinformation before a cor...
-
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11549669/Source snippet
PMCby G Chen · 2024 · Cited by 2 — The continued influence effect (CIE) of misinformation refers to the persistence of misinformation's i...
-
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Link: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8447889/Source snippet
PMCby MW Susmann · 2021 · Cited by 90 — Research examining the continued influence effect (CIE) of misinformation has reliably found that...
-
Source: link.springer.com
Link: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s41235-021-00335-9Source snippet
factors that mitigate the continued influence of...by IP Kan · 2021 · Cited by 27 — The term “continued influence effect” (CIE) refers t...
Topic Tree